7:Announcement of Birth of John(Jeruselem Temple)

7/6:Announcement of Birth of Jesus to the vergin Mary (Nazareth)

c.5:Song of Elizebeth to the vergin Mary (Hill Country of Judea)

5:Birth,Infancy,and purpose for future of John the Baptist (Judea)Announcement of Jesus' Birth to Joseph

BC 4/5:**Birth of LORD JESUS CHRIST **(Bethelehem)

4/5:Proclamation by the Angels,Thevisit of Homage by Shepherds,Jesus' circumcision

4:First Temple visit with acknowledgments by Semeon and Anna

4:Visit of the wise men

4:Jesus'parents take Him to Egypt and Massacre of innocents

2:Death of Herod and Joseph and Mary returned to Isreal

AD

7-8:Jesus 12 years old visit the Temple

20-48:Gondophornes ruled over Indo-Parthian Kingdom

25-27:John's ministry begins

27:Jesus baptized,Jesus tempted,Calls first disciples,The first miracle,first stay in Capernaum

27:First cleansing of the Temple,Teaches Nicodemus,Co-ministry with John

28:Goes to Jeruselem for Passover,Famous Parables

29:5000 fed,Feast of Tabernacles

30:Begins last journey to Jeruselem

Spring 30: Sunday:triumphal entry

Monday:Fig Tree cursed and Temple Cleansed(Bethany to Jeruselem)

Tuesday:Jesus tells date of crucifixion

Wednesday:Preperation for the passover

Thursday pm:Passover Feast,Institution of the Lord's Supper

Thursday night:The grief of Gethsemane,Betrayal,Arrest

Friday:Trial,Suside of Judas,Led to Golgotha, 6 events of first 3 hours on cross,Burial of Jesus,Tomb sealed

Saturday:Women watch

Sunday:Women visit the Tomb,Jesus Appearance to Mary magdalene

Sunday afternon:Jesus Appearance to Two Desciples

33:St.Thomas sent Thaddeus to King Agbar of Edessa

33:Church established in Edessa

35:Stephanos martyred

40:Apostle Thomas in the service of King Gondaphares in Takshasila

41:St.Peeter at Antioch

44:Yacob martyred

46-48:St Pauls first missionary journey

49:Book of Galatians was written

49:Book of James was written

50:Synod of Jeruselem

50-52:St Pauls second missionary journey

51:Book of I&II Thessalonians was written

52:Nov 21 St. Thomas, the apostle, landed at Cranganore (Kodungalloor, in the present Thrissur District)

52-72 The Apostle builds 7 churches: Palayoor, Kodungaloor, Parur, Kokamangalam, Niranam, Nilackal, Kollam

52 According to tradition, the Apostle Thomas arrives in India and establishes seven congregations.


54-68 Nero emperor of Rome

56 Paul writes 1 Corin

57 Paul writes Romans

57 Paul writes 2 Corin

57 Paul's last visit to Jerusalem [Acts21]

58 Paul arrested, imprisoned in Caesarea [Acts25:4]

59 Nero kills his mother, Agrippina

60 Paul imprisoned in Rome (Acts 28,16)

61-63? Paul? writes Ephesians

61-63 Paul writes Philemon

61-63 Paul writes Colossians

61-63? Paul? writes 1,2 Timothy, Titus, known as "pastoral epistles"

62? James written by leader of Jerusalem community? (Gal 2,9?), "catholic"

epistle

62 Paul martyred for treason in Rome

62 {Being therefore this kind of person [i.e., a heartless Sadducee], Ananus,

thinking that he had a favorable opportunity because Festus had died and

Albinus was still on his way, called a meeting [literally, "sanhedrin"] of

judges and brought into it the brother of Jesus-who-is-called-Messiah,

James by name, and some others. He made the accusation that they had

transgressed the law, and he handed them over to be stoned.}

[JA20.9.1,Marginal Jew,p.57]

62 Nero kills his wife Octavia and marries Poppaea Sabina

64 Great fire of Rome, started by Nero and blamed on Christians, {Therefore to squelch the rumor , Nero created scapegoats and subjected to the most refined tortures those whom the common people called "Christians," [a group] hated for their abominable crimes. Their name comes from Christ, who, during the reign of Tiberius, had been executed by the procurator Pontius Pilate. Suppressed for the moment, the deadly superstition broke out again, not only in Judea, the land which originated this evil, but also in the city of Rome, where all sorts of horrendous and shameful practices from every part of the world converge and are fervently cultivated.} [Tacitus Annals 15.44;Marginal Jew;Meier;p.89-90]

64-95? 1 Peter written in Rome, by Peter the apostle?, "catholic" epistle



65-125 Period in which 4 Gospels, Acts, Revelations, and remaining epistles written

- Peter martyred before 1st Holy Gospel is written, 7 Popes before last

epistle is completed



65? Q written, (German:Quelle, meaning "source") a hypothetical Greek text used

in writing of Matthew and Luke

65-150 Didache: Instructions of the Apostles written

65-150 Dialogue of the Savior, Gospel of Peter

65-150 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1224 fragments: pub. 1914

65-150 Gospel of Thomas written, based on Q?, pub. 1959, Greek originals: Papyrus

Ox. 1,654-5

65-175 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 840 fragments: pub. 1908

65-175 Papyrus Egerton 2 (Unknown Gospel) fragments: pub. 1935/87, in Greek

from Palestine, one of the oldest extant Christian texts (~175)

65-250 Papyrus Fayum (P. Vindob. G. 2325) fragments: pub. 1887

65-350 "Jewish-Christian Gospels": 7 fragments of Gospel of the Ebionites and 7

fragments of Gospel of the Hebrews in Greek; 36 fragments of Gospel of the

Nazarenes in Aramaic; [Ref: NT Apocrypha, W. Schneemelcher, vol. 1]

66-70 Roman-Jewish War: final destruction of Second Temple (Herod's Temple)

67 Peter martyred, crucified upside down in Rome

67-78 Pope Linus, 2nd Pope, succeeds Peter (Linus mentioned in 2 Tm 4,21)

67 General Vespasian of Rome conquers Galilee

68 Nero commits suicide, resurrects as "Nero redivivus", Rev's 666? (see 81)

68 Galba emperor of Rome (6/68-1/69)

68 Qumran (Essenes?) community destroyed by Rome, site of Dead Sea Scrolls

found in 1949

69 Otho emperor of Rome (1/69-4/69)

69 Vitellius emperor of Rome (6/69-12/69)

69 Flavian Dynasty of Rome (Vespian, Titus, Domitian)

69-79 Vespian emperor of Rome, quells unrest in Rome and Jerusalem

70 Collapse of Jewish self-government in Judea and destruction of the Temple in

Jerusalem

70 Gospel according to Mark written in Rome, by Peter's interpreter? (1 Peter

5,13), original ending apparently lost, endings added c 400

70? "Signs Gospel" written, hypothetical Greek text used in Gospel of John to

prove Jesus is the Messiah

72:Jul. 3 Martyrdom of St. Thomas in the vicinity of Mylapore, Madras

70-640 Sanhedrin (High Court) period of Judaism, rise of house of Hillel

75-90 Gospel according to Luke written, based on Mark and Q

75-90 Acts of the Apostles written, same author as Gospel according to Luke

79-81 Titus emperor of Rome, eldest son of Vespasian

79-91 Pope Anacletus, 3rd Pope, known as "blameless" (as in Titus 1,7?)

79 Mt Vesuvius, volcano overlooking Naples Bay, erupts, engulfs Pompeii

80-85 Gospel according to Matthew written, based on Mark and Q, most popular in

early Church

81-96 Domitian emperor of Rome, son of Vespasian, "Nero redivivus?" (see 68)

81-96 Revelations written, by John (son of Zebedee) and/or a disciple of his

90-100 1 John written, by author(s) of 4th gospel, "catholic" epistle

90-100 2,3 John written, by "elder", disciple of John (son of Zebedee)?, "catholic"

epistle

90-100 Gospel according to John written, by John (son of Zebedee) and others, only

eyewitness to Jesus?, disciple Jesus loved?, Gnostic?

90? Josephus claims exactly 22 Jewish (OT) books: 5 Law, 13 History, 4 Hymns

91-101 Pope Clement I, 4th Pope, (mentioned in Phil 4,3), wrote letter to Corinth in

95 called "1 Clement"

94 "Jewish Antiquities", by Josephus in Aramaic, trans. to Grk., Testimonium

Flavianum: {At this time there appeared Jesus, a wise man. For he was a

doer of startling deeds, a teacher of people who receive the truth with

pleasure. And he gained a following both among many Jews and among many

of Greek origin. And when Pilate, because of an accusation made by the

leading men among us, condemned him to the cross, those who had loved him

previously did not cease to do so. And up until this very day the tribe of

Christians (named after him) has not died out.} [JA18.3.3 Meier redaction,

Marginal Jew, p.61]

96? Hebrews written, by ?

96-98 Nerva emperor of Rome

98-116 Trajan emperor of Rome, Roman empire reaches maximum size

100? Odes of Solomon, written in Greek or Syriac, ref by John? (Apocrypha)

100? Epistle of Barnabas, Christian exegesis of LXX (AF = Apostolic Fathers)

100? 2 Clement, an old sermon but not by Clement (AF = Apostolic Fathers)

100? 2 Esdras (Vg:4 Esdras), Hebrew?, claims 24 OT books (Vulgate & Peshitta)

100? Apocalypse of Baruch (2 Baruch:Syriac, 3 Baruch:Greek) (Peshitta)

100? Paralipomena of Jeremiah (4 Baruch), written in Hebrew (Ethiopic Bible)

100? Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, Aramaic and Hebrew fragments found

at Qumran Caves 1,4 (Armenian Bible)

100? Jude written, probably by doubting relative of Jesus (Mark 6,3), rejected by

some early Christians due to its reference to apocryphal Book of Enoch

(v14), "catholic" epistle

100-125? 2 Peter written, by ?, not accepted into canon until early 400s, drew upon

Epistle of Jude, "catholic" epistle

100-150 Secret Book (Apocryphon) of James, Gospel of Mary Magdalene, Infancy

Gospels of Thomas and James, Secret Gospel (of Mark) (Complete Gospels)

100:New Testament canon

72-1653:Rule of Arch Deacons in Malankara

101-109 Pope Evaristus, 5th Pope

109-116 Pope Alexander, 6th Pope

110? Letter of Polycarp to the Philippians, written by Polycarp (160) (AF)

110? "Letters of Ignatius", bishop of Antioch, martyred in Rome, his letters were

subjected to heavy Christian forgery esp. 4th cent. (Apostolic Fathers)

116-125 Pope Sixtus I, 7th Pope

117-138 Hadrian emperor of Rome, builds wall across Britain



125-350 Period of Christianity during which the first Bible was assembled - Christians

are fiercely persecuted and then finally tolerated by the Roman Empire, Great

Plague in Rome



125-136 Pope Telesphorus, 8th Pope, martyred

125? Papyrus 52: oldest extant NT fragment, p.1935, parts of Jn18:31-33,37-38

125? Shepherd of Hermas, written in Rome (AF = Apostolic Fathers)

130-200 "Christian Apologists" writings against Roman Paganism by: Justin Martyr

(165), Athenagoras (180?), Aristides (145?), Theophilus of Antioch (185?),

Tatian (170), Quadratus (130?), Melito of Sardis (180?), Apollinaris of

Hierapolis (180?), also Epistle to Diognetus in Apostolic Fathers

130? "Gospel of Basilides", a 24 book commentary?, lost

130? Papias, bishop of Hierapolis in Asia Minor, wrote: "Expositions of the Sayings

of the Lord", lost, widely quoted, see Eusebius (340) (AF)

130? Aquila of Pontus, Roman convert to Christianity then to Judaism, student of

Rabban Gamaliel, compiled literal Greek OT translation in Jabneh (Jamnia)

132-135 Bar Kokhba Revolt: final Jewish revolt, Judea and Jerusalem erased from

maps, all of southern Syria renamed Palestine (coined by Herodotus)

138-161 Antoninus Pius emperor of Rome

138-142 Pope Hyginus, 9th Pope

140 Letters of Marcion, produces his own canon without OT and using only a

heavily edited Luke + 10 Pauline Epistles, cites "Western" Gospel text-type

140? Apocalypse of Peter, written in Greek [NT Apocrypha,Schneemelcher,v.2]

142-155 Pope Pius I, 10th Pope

150? Gospel of the Egyptians, Coptic translation of orig. Greek (Nag Hammadi)

150? "Western Revisor" adds/subtracts from original Acts to produce "Western"

version which is 10% larger and found in Papyrus P29,38,48 and Codex

Bezae (D)

150? Papyrus Chester Beatty 6: R963, Greek Num 5:12-36:13, Deut 1:20-34:12

154-222:Bardesan of Edesa wrote Act of Thomas

165:Relics of St.Thomas translated to Edesa

155-166 Pope Anicetus, 11th Pope

160? Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, martyred at age 86: "Let. to Philip." (110)

160? Martyrdom of Polycarp, in Greek (Apostolic Fathers, ISBN:0-8010-5676-4)

161-180 Marcus Aurelius emperor of Rome

164-180 Great Plague in Roman Empire

166-174 Pope Soter, 12th Pope, moved Easter from Nisan 14 to following Sunday

170 Letters of Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, cites "Western" Gospel text-type

170 Christian council on Montanist sect in Asia Minor

170 Letters of Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, claims Christians were changing and

faking his own letters just as [he knew] they had changed the Gospels

170 Tatian produces "Diatessaron" (Harmony) by blending 4 "Western" text-type

Gospels into 1

170? Symmachus, an Ebionite, writes an entirely new Greek OT translation

174-189 Pope Eleutherius, 13th Pope

175? Acts of Paul (inc. 3 Cor.), in Greek [NT Apocrypha,Schneemelcher,v.2]

180-192 Commodus emperor of Rome

c. 189 Pantaenus, a missionary from Alexandria, arrives in India.


53-62 Paul writes Phil

185-350 Canon Muratorian, 1st extant for NT?, written in Rome by Hippolytus?,

excludes Hebrews, James, 1-2 Peter, 3 John; includes Wisdom of Solomon,

Apocalypse of Peter

189-198 Pope Victor I, 1st Latin Pope, 14th Pope, excommunicated Eastern churches

that continued to observe Easter on Nisan 14 "Quartodeciman", (see 166,

190)

190 Christian council to determine "official" date of Easter

190:Pantaenus, (probably the founder of the famous Catechetical School of Alexandria) visited Malankara and the Nazranies

193-211 Septimius Severus emperor of Rome

197 Writings of Apollonius, uses the term "catholic" in reference to 1 John

198-217 Pope Zephyrinus, 15th Pope

200 Bishop of Antioch notes Gospel of Peter (see 65?) being used in Cilicia

c. 200 The Syriac Chronicle of Edessa describes a "church of the Christians" in India.

200? Papyrus 66: 2nd Bodmer, John, 1956, "Alexandrian/Western" text-types: Jn 1:1-6:11,35-7:52;8:12-14:26,29-30;15:2-26;16:2-4,6-7,10-20:20,22-23,25-21:9

200? Papyrus 75: Bodmer 14-15, Luke & John, earliest extant Luke, ~Vaticanus;

Lk3:18-22,33-4:2,34-5:10,37-6:4,10-7:32,35-39,41-43,46-9:2,4-

17:15,19-18:18; 22:4-24:53; Jn1:1-7:52;8:12-11:45,48-57;12:3-

13:1,8-9;14:8-30;15:7-8

200? Papyrus 46: 2nd Chester Beatty, "Alexandrian" text-type: Rm5:17-6:3,5-

14;8:15-25,27-35,37-9:32;10:1-11:22,24-33,35-15:9,11-16:27;Hb1:1-

9:16,18-10:20,22-30,32-13:25;1Cr1:1-9:2,4-14:14,16-15:15,17-

16:22;2Cr1:1-11:10,12-21,23-13:13;Ep1:1-2:7,10-5:6,8-6:6,8,20-

24;Gl1:1-8,10-2:9,12-21;3:2-29;4:2-18,20-5:17,20-6:8,10-

18;Ph1:1,5-15,17-28,30-2:12,14-27,29-3:8,10-21;4:2-12,14-

23;Cl1:1-2,5-13,16-24,27-2:19,23-3:11,13-24;4:3-12,16-

18;1Th1:1,9-2:3;5:5-9,23-28

200? Papyrus 32: J. Rylands Library: Titus 1:11-15;2:3-8

200? Papyrus 64 (+67): Mt3:9,15;5:20-22,25-28;26:7-8,10,14-15,22-23,31-

33

200? Old Syriac (Aramaic) Gospels, Syr(s) & Syr(c), of "Western" text-type

200? Latin Bible translations begun in Carthage?, originals no longer extant

200? Sahidic Coptic cop(sa) Bible translations written in Alexendria

212-217 Geta then Caracalla emperors of Rome

216-428:Perumal rule of in Kerala

217-236 Anti-Pope Hippolytus, bishop of Rome, "Logos" sect, 1st Anti-Pope

(illegitimate claimants of or pretenders to the papal throne)

217-222 Pope Callistus I, 16th Pope

218-222 Heliogabalus emperor of Rome

220 Goths invade Asia Minor and Balkans

220? Clement of Alexandria, b.150?, bishop, cites "Alexandrian" NT text-type &

Secret Gospel of Mark & Gospel of the Egyptians; wrote: "Exhortations to the

Greeks";"Rich Man's Salutation";"To the Newly Baptized"; (Loeb Classics)

222-230 Pope Urban I, 17th Pope

222-235 Alexandar Severus emperor of Rome

223? Tertullian, wr: "de Spectaculis" (Latin): v30.6 cites rumor Jesus son of

prostitute, coined "New Testament", cites "Western" Gospel text-type (Loeb)

225? Papyrus 45: 1st Chester Beatty, Gospels (Caesarean), Acts (Alexandrian):

Mt20:24-32;21:13-19;25:41-26:39; Mk4:36-40;5:15-26,38-6:3,16-

25,36-50;7:3-15 ,25-8:1,10-26,34-9:9,18-31;11:27-12:1,5-8,13-

19,24-28; Lk6:31-41,45-7:7;9:26 -41,45-10:1,6-22,26-11:1,6-25,28-

46,50-12:12,18-37,42-13:1,6-24,29-14:10,17-33; Jn10:7-25,30-

11:10,18-36,42-57; Ac4:27-36;5:10-21,30-39;6:7-7:2,10-21,32-

41,52-8:1,14-25,34-9:6,16-27,35-10:2,10-23,31-41;11:2-14,24-

12:5,13-22;13:6-16,25-36,46-14:3,15-23;15:2-7,19-27,38-16:4,15-

21,32-40;17:9-17

225? Papyrus 967: Chester Beatty 9, Greek Ezekiel 11:25-end, ~Codex Vaticanus

230-236 Pope Pontian, 18th Pope

230-250 Christian council of Rome, Demetrius bishop of Alex. condemns Origen who in

248 cited a rumor recorded by Celsus that "Jesus fabricated the account of

his birth from a virgin. In reality, Jesus' mother was driven out by the

carpenter husband to whom she was betrothed because she had committed

adultery with a [Roman] soldier named Panthera [thus the ben Pantere of

Jewish sources]. Left poor and homeless, she gave birth to Jesus in secret.

Jesus later spent time in Egypt, where he hired himself out as a laborer,

learned magic, and so came to claim the title of God." [CC1.28-32, Marginal

Jew, Meier, p. 223]

231:Jerusalem Synod sanctioned Catholicate of Persia

232: Sassanians become a major power.

236-238 Maximus emperor of Rome, ends Christian schism in Rome by deporting Pope

Pontian and anti-Pope Hippolytus to Sardinia where they soon die

236-237 Pope Anterus, 19th Pope

237-250 Pope Fabian, 20th Pope

238-244 Gordian I, II, Balbinus, Pupienus, Gordian III emperors of Rome

240-250 Christian council of Carthage

244-249 Philip the Arabian emperor of Rome

249-251 Decius emperor of Rome

249 Rome celebrates 1000th anniversary

250 Rome steps up persecution of Christians, martyrs revered as saints

250 Letters of Methodius, Pistis Sophia, Porphyry Tyrius; church fathers

250? Mandeans (followers of John the Baptist) begin compilation of "Ginza"

250? Papyrus 72: Bodmer 5-11+, pub. 1959, "Alexandrian" text-type: Nativity of

Mary; 3Cor; Odes of Solomon 11; Jude 1-25; Melito's Homily on Passover;

Hymn fragment; Apology of Phileas; Ps33,34; 1Pt1:1-5:14; 2Pt1:1-3:18;

250? Papyrus Chester Beatty: #5:R962: Gn8:13-9:2,24:13-46:33,Enoch91-105;

#7: I8:18-19:13,38:14-45:5,54:1=60:22; #8: Jr4:30-5:24; #10: Dn1-

12:13(+Add),Bel4-39,Sus5-end,Esther1:1a-8:6(+Add)

251-253 Gallus emperor of Rome

251-253 Pope Cornelius, 21st Pope

251-258 Anti-Pope Novatian, decreed no forgiveness for sins after baptism

253-260 Valerian emperor of Rome, executes all Bishops, Priests, and Deacons

253-254 Pope Lucius I, 22nd Pope

254 Letters of Origen, Jesus and God one substance, adopted at Council of Nicaea

in 325, compiled "Hexapla": 6 versions of LXX side by side: Hebrew, Hebrew

transliterated in Greek, Aquila's Greek trans., Symmachus' Greek trans.,

Origen's revised LXX Greek trans., Theodotion's revised LXX; also

Quinta/Sexta/Septima trans., Tetragrammaton in square Hebrew script;

cites "Alexandrian" & "Caesarean" NT text-types; Eusebius claimed Origen

castrated himself for Christ due to Mt19:12 [EH6.8.1-3]

254-257 Pope Steven I, 23rd Pope, major schism over rebaptizing heretics and

apostates

257-258 Pope Sixtus II, 24th Pope, martyred

257 Visigoths and Ostrogoths invade Black Sea area, Franks invade Spain

258 Letters of Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, cites "Western" NT text-type, claims

Christians are freely forging his letters to discredit him

260-268 Gallienus emperor of Rome, reverses Valerian, restores Roman Church

260-268 Pope Dionysius, 25th Pope, rebuilds Roman Church after Valerian's massacre

264-268 Christian council on Paul of Samosata, Bishop of Antioch, founder of

Adoptionism (Jesus was human until Holy Spirit descended at his baptism)

264? Letters of Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, b.190?

267:Catholicos Pappa at Seleucia

268 Goths sack Athens, Sparta, Corinth

268-270 Claudius II emperor of Rome

269-274 Pope Felix I, 26th Pope

270-275 Aurelian emperor of Rome

275-283 Pope Eutychian, 27th Pope, decreed that only beans and grapes be blessed at

Mass

275? Papyrus 47: 3rd Chester Beatty, ~Sinaiticus, Rv9:10-11:3,5-16:15,17-

17:2

276-282 Marcus Aurelius Probus emperor of Rome

276 Mani, b.215, crucified, founder of Manichaean Christian sect in Persia

283-296 Pope Gaius, 28th Pope

284-305 Diocletian emperor of Rome, notorius persecuter of Christians

285 Roman empire partitioned into Western and Eastern empires

290-345 St Pachomius establishes 1st monastery in Egypt

295:Metropolitan Dawood of the Persian Church visits

296-304 Pope Marcellinus, 29th Pope, apostate, offered pagan sacrifices for

Diocletian

300:Metropolitan Daud visited Malankara

300? Bohairic Coptic cop(bo) Bible translations written in Alexandria

300? Hesychius of Alex., martyr, translates Hebrew OT to Greek, lost [Jerome]

300? Papyrus Berlin Codex of Greek Genesis; Papyrus Bodmer 24 of Greek Psalms;

Codex Freer of Greek Minor Prophets; all published in 1927

300? other 3rd century NT witnesses: P1:Mt1:1-9,12,14-20 P4:Lk1:58-59,62-

2:1, 6-7;3:8-4:2,29-32,34-35;5:3-8,30-6:16 P5:Jn1:23-31,33-

40;16:14-30;20:11-17, 19-20,22-25 P9:1Jn4:11-12,14-17 P12:Hb1:1

P15:1Cr7:18-8:4 P20:Jm2:19-3:9 P22:Jn15:25-16:2,21-32

P23:Jm1:10-12,15-18 P27:Rm8:12-22,24-27,33-9:3,5-9 P28:Jn6:8-

12,17-22 P29:Ac26:7-8,20 P30:1Th4:12-13,16-17;5:3,8-10,12-18,25-

28;2Th1:1-2 P38:Ac18:27-19:6,12-16 P39:Jn8:14-22 P40:Rm1:24-

27,31-2:3;3:21-4:8;6:4-5:16;9:16-17:27 P48:Ac23:11-17,23-29

P49:Ep4:16-29,31-5:13 P53:Mt26:29-40;Ac9:33-10:1 P65:1Th1:3-

2:1,6-13 P69:Lk22:41,45-48,58-61 P70:Mt2:13-16,22-3:1;11:26-

27;12:4-5;24:3-6,12-15 P80:Jn3:34 P87:Pm13-15,24-25

#0171:Mt10:17-23,25-32;Lk22:44-56,61-64 #0189:Ac5:3-21

#0220:Rm4:23-5:3,8-13 #0212(Diatessaron):Mt27:56-57;Mk15:40-

42;Lk23:49-51,54;Jn19:38

303-311 Last persecution of Christians in Rome

304 Letters of Victor, bishop of Pettau

306-337 Emperor Constantine the Great, convert to Christianity

306-312 Maxentius emperor of Western Roman Empire

306-308 Pope Marcellus I, 30th Pope, tried removing prior Pope Marcellinus from

official records for apostasy, exiled from Rome by Maxentius for disturbing

the peace

310 Pope Eusebius, 31st Pope, deported to Sicily with anti-Pope Heraclius by

Maxentius

311-314 Pope Miltiades, 32nd Pope, Constantine gives Fausta's palace as papal

residence

312 Lucian, founded Exegetical School of Antioch, martyred

312 Constantine defeats Maxentius at Milvian Bridge, reunites Roman Empire

313 Edict of Milan, Constantine establishes toleration of Christianity

313 Miltiades excommunicates Donatus for requiring rebaptism of apostates

314-335 Pope Silvester I, 33rd Pope

314 Council of Arles, called by Constantine against Donatist (Donatus) schism

317 Letters of Lactantius, early Christian church father

321 Constantine decrees Sunday as offical Roman-Christian day of rest

325 Council of Nicaea, called by Constantine against Arianism (336), called 1st

great Christian council by Jerome, 1st ecumenical, 318 bishops attend,

Nicaean Creed

325:Archbishop John, of Persia and Great India, at the first Ecumenical Council of Nicea

325? Fayyumic Coptic cop(mf) translation fragment of John 6:11-15:11

330 Old Saint Peter's Basilica dedicated by Constantine, located over the

traditional burial site of Saint Peter the Apostle in Rome on Vatican Hill

331 Seat of Roman Empire moved to Constantinople (formally Byzantium)

336-337 Pope Mark, 34th Pope

336 Arius, Greek theologian - Arianism (Jesus was a created being)

337-350 Roman empire splits again, Constans emperor of West until 350

337-361 Roman empire splits again, Constantius emperor of East until 361

337-352 Pope Julius I, 35th Pope

338 Jewish calendar modified with different year lengths to correct to Solar

340-360 By the Thazhekad Sasanam the Nazranies granted special rights and privileges.

340? Eusebius of Caesarea (260-340), theologian & church historian, cites

"Caesarean" NT text-type, wrote: "Ecclesiastical History" (EH); Loeb

Classics: 2 volumes {Papias, bishop of Hierapolis (130?), claims that John

the Elder, a disciple of Jesus, told him that Mark "was the interpreter of

Peter and wrote down carefully what he remembered of what had been said

or done by the Lord, but not in the right order." Also claims that "Matthew

composed the sayings in Hebrew [more likely Aramaic] and each one

translated them as he could."} [Ref: EH3.39.15, Unauthorized Version, Fox,

p.126-127] Eusebius' NT Canon: Recognized Books: 4 Holy Gospels, Acts, 14

Pauline Epistles, 1Jn, 1Pt; Disputed Books: Rev, James, Jude, 2Pt, 2-3Jn,

Acts of Paul, Hermas, Apocalypse of Peter, Barnabas, Didache, Gospel of the

Hebrews; Rejected Books: Gospels of Peter, Thomas, Matthias, Acts of

Andrew, John ... [EH3.25], used the term "catholic" to refer to all seven

epistles - James; 1,2,3 John; 1,2 Peter; Jude

345 During the Great Persecution in Persia, Thomas a Kana leads 400 Christian refugees to the Malabar coast.


345:Imigration of Mar Joseph,Cana Thi-oma and others

345:A group of 72 syrian settlers under the leadership of Knanya Thoman arrives in Kodungalloor. Kocharakon Perumal gave brass- copper plaques (Cana Thoma Chepped )to knanya Thoman and his group on which were inscribed the list of the gifts given

350-400 Period of time between the 1st Christian Bible and the 1st Western Christian

Bible, during which the books contained in Bibles varied



350 Letters of Adamantius, Firmicus Maternus; early Christian church fathers

350? Codex Sinaiticus (S or ): earliest Christian Bible, (LXX - 2-

3Maccabees - Psalms of Solomon - Ps151 + 27NT + Barnabas + Hermas),

missing Hermas31.7-end; of "Alexandrian" text-type: most accurate text-

type

350? Codex Vaticanus (B): earliest Christian Bible (LXX - 1-4Maccabees - Psalms

of Solomon - Ps151 + 27NT), missing Gn1-46:28, Ps105:27-137:6, 1Tm-

Phm, Heb9:14-end; of "Alexandrian" text-type: most accurate text-type

350? Papyrus Antinoopolis of Book of Proverbs in Greek, published in 1950

350? Papyrus Chester Beatty: #4:R961: Greek Gn9:1-44:22; #11: Greek

Sir36:28- 37:22,46:6-47:2; #12: Greek Enoch93:12-13,94:7-8,97:6-

104:13,106:1-107:3

350? Papyrus Bodmer 45-46: Greek Susanna, Daniel 1:1-20 (Theodotion's LXX)

350? Canon Cheltenham: 24NT books (excludes James, Jude, Hebrews)

350? Akhmimic cop(ac) & Sub-Akhmimic cop(ac2) Coptic translations of John

350? Ulfilas, apostle to the Goths (Germans), translates Greek NT to Gothic

352-366 Pope Liberius, 36th Pope

354:Theophilus of Maldive Islands visited Malankara

354-430 St. Augustine, Latin Bishop considered the founder of formalized Christian

theology, church father

355-365 Anti-Pope Felix II, Arianism (336), supported by Constantius II

360 Huns invade Europe, scrolls begin to be replaced by books (Codex)

361-363 Julian the Apostate emperor of East, attempts to revive Paganism

363 Council of Laodicea names 26 NT books (excludes Revelations)

363 Letters of Marius Victorinus, Acacius of Caesarea; early church fathers

364 Council of Laodicea decrees death for Christians who keep 7th day Sabbath

366-384 Pope Damasus I, 37th Pope, hired thugs to massacre rival Ursinians

(Liberians)

366-367 Anti-Pope Ursinus, leader of supporters of former Pope Liberius

367 Athanasias, bishop of Alexandria, first citing of modern 27 NT canon

367 Letters of Hilary of Poitiers, Lucifer of Calaris; early church fathers

367 Athanasius, d.373, bishop of Alexandria, first cite of modern 27NT canon

370 Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis, Cyprus; cites 27NT + Wisdom of Solomon

370 Doctrine of Addai at Edessa proclaims 17 book NT canon using Diatessaron

(instead of the 4 Gospels) + Acts + 15 Pauline Epistles (inc. 3 Corinthians)

373 Letters of Ephraem Syrus, cites "Western" Acts text-type

378 Letters of Titus of Bostra, Ambrosiaster, Priscillian; church fathers

379-395 Theodosius the Great, last emperor of the united empire

380 Feb 27, Christianity declared official state religion by Theodosius

381 Council of Theodosius at Constantinople, 2nd ecumenical, Jesus had true

human soul

382-384 Pope Damasus I has Jerome revise and unify Latin Bibles

383 Roman legions begin to evacuate Britain

384 Jerome presents Pope Damasus I with new Latin Gospels, originals lost

384-399 Pope Siricius, 38th Pope, criticized Jerome

390 Apollinaris of Laodicea, Jesus had human body but divine spirit

390 Letters of Tyconius, Gregory of Nyssa, Didymus of Alex.; church fathers

391? Ammianus Marcellinus, b.330, Christian historian, wrote: "Res gestae"

393,397 Augustine's Councils, cites exactly 27 NT books (see 354)

395 Theodosius prohibits practice of Pagan rituals including Olympic Games

395 Ausonius, b.310?, Christian governor of Gaul; Loeb Classics 2v (Latin)

396 Alaric, king of the Visigoths, plunders Athens

397 Ambrose, b.333?, bishop & governor of Milan, wrote: "de Fide" ...

399-401 Pope Anastasius I, 39th Pope



400-484 Era between 1st Western Christian Bible and the Great Schism - Christian

doctrine is formed, Roman empire ends



400:North Pudukkad church founded

400? Vulgate Bible, by Jerome?, (340?-420) originals lost, Vulgate Latin text

becomes standard Western Christian Bible

400? Jerome cites "expanded" ending in Mark after Mark 16,14

400? Jerome adds Pericope of the Adultress (John 7,53-8,11)

400? Codex Vercellensis it(a): Latin Gospels, of "European" text-type

400? Peshitta Bible, Syriac (Aramaic) Vulgate, Syr(p), OT + 22 NT, excludes:

2Pt, 2-3Jn, Jude, Rev; Peshitta becomes standard Syrian Christian Bible

400? Codex Bobiensis it(k): ~half of Mt/Mk in Latin, "African" (Carthage) text-

type, has "shorter" ending of Mark after Mk16:8

401-417 Pope Innocent I, 40th Pope, decreed Roman custom the norm for Christianity

401 Visigoths invade Italy

403 Letters of Epiphanius of Constantia, John Chrysostom; church fathers

410:Council of Seleucia

410 Visigoths sack Rome under king Alaric

414 Letters of Nicetas of Remesiana, Orosius; early Christian church fathers

415 Bishop Cyril of Alex. (444) expels Jews, kills Hypatia with oyster shells

416 Visigoths take Spain

417-418 Pope Zosimus, 41st Pope

418-422 Pope Boniface I, 42nd Pope

418-419 Anti-Pope Eulalius

418 Franks take Gaul

420 St. Jerome, (S.E. Hieronymus), b.340?, Latin scholar; (Loeb Classics)

422-432 Pope Celestine I, 43rd Pope

423 Theodoret, bishop of Cyrrhus, notes Tatian's Harmony (170) in heavy use

424:Council of Markabta

431 Council of Ephesus, 3rd ecumenical, decreed Mary the Mother of God

429 Picts and Scots expelled from southern England by Anglo-Saxon-Jutes

430 St. Augustine, b.354, origin of "Original Sin," church father & philosopher,

wrote: "The City of God", "Confessions"; Loeb Classics 10 v. (Latin)

430 Letters of Marcus Eremita, Nilus of Ancyra; Christian church fathers

431 Syrian Christianity splits into East (Nestorian-disagreed with Council of

Ephesus) and West (Jacobites)

432 St Patrick begins mission in Ireland

432-440 Pope Sixtus III, 44th Pope

433-453 Attila the Hun, "Scourge of the Gods"

440-461 Pope Leo I, 45th Pope

444 Letters of Cyril of Alexandria, Arnobius the Younger; church fathers

450 Mark's Resurrection of Jesus added to Bible (Mark 16, 9-20)

450? Codex Alexandrinus (A): (LXX - 1-2Maccabees + 14_Church_Odes + 27NT +

1-2Clement), missing 1K12:17-14:9, Ps49:20-79:11, Psalms of Solomon,

Mt1-25:6, Jn6:50-8:52, 2Cr4:13-12:6, 1Clement57.7-63.4,

2Clement12.5b-end; of "Alexandrian" text-type: most accurate text-type

450? Codex Bezae (D): Greek/Latin Gospels + Acts; Codex Washingtonianus (W):

Greek Gospels; both of "Western" text-type: "fondness for paraphrase"

450? Codex Ephraemi Syri rescriptus (C): Greek LXX + 27NT, many gaps

450? Codex Marchalianus (Q): Greek LXX + Luke + John, many gaps

450? Codex Ambrosianus (F): Greek Genesis to Joshua

450? Codex Freer: Greek Deuteronomy and Joshua

450? Codex Colberto-Sarravianus: Origen's Greek Hexapla LXX of Gen-Judg

450? Codex Palatinus it(e): Latin Gospels, "African" (Carthage) text-type

450? Codex Veronensis it(b): Latin Gospels, "European/Vulgate" text-type

450? Syr(pal), Palestinian Syriac (Aramaic) Gospels, of "Caesarean" text-type

450? std. Aramaic Targums, T. Onkelos of Torah, T. Jonathan of Prophets

451 Council of Chalcedon, 4th ecumenical, declared Jesus is 2 natures, both

human and divine in one, a compromise solution of Jesus god/man schisms

451 Nestorius of Constantinople, Nestorians: Mary was *not* "Mother of God"

451 Letters of Hesychius, Quodvultdeus; early Christian church fathers

454 Eutyches of Constantinople, Monophysites: Jesus was divine but not human

455 Vandals sack Rome

456:Persian Church was moving towards adopting Nestorianism as its faith

457-474 Pope Leo I, 46th Pope, becomes emperor of remaining (eastern) Roman

empire

461-468 Pope Hilarus, 47th Pope

463 Letters of Prosper of Aquitaine, early Christian church father

466 Letters of Shenute of Atripe, Theodoret of Cyrrhus; early church fathers

468-483 Pope Simplicius, 48th Pope

474-491 Zeno, eastern Roman emperor

476 Official end of western Roman empire, last emperor Romulus Augustulus

480:St. Hormis church, Angamaly founded

480-547 St. Benedict, founded the Benedictines

483-492 Pope Felix III (II), 49th Pope



484-640 Period between Great Schism and the destruction of the Library of Alexendria

- After the end of the Roman Empire, the Catholic Church sees a period of

turmoil and division, Europe's population "halved" by plague, great

earthquakes occur



484-519 Acacian schism, over "Henoticon" divides Eastern (Greek) and Western

(Roman) churches. Photinus, deacon of Thessalonica, was of the Greek

church and held to the Acacian heresy, which denied the divine paternity of

Christ. Photinus persuaded emperor Anastasius I to accept the Acacian

heresy.

484 Letters of Vigilius of Thapsus, early Christian church father

489 Zeno destroys Nestorian (451) school at Edessa, erects Church of St Simeon

491 Armenian Church seceds from East (Byzantium) and West (Rome) churches

491-518 Anastasius I eastern Roman emperor

492-496 Pope Gelasius I, 50th Pope, "Vicar of Christ" is first used as another title

496-498 Pope Anastasius II

498 Nestorians (451) settle in Nisibis, Persia

498-514 Pope Symmachus

514-523 Pope Hormisdas

523-526 Pope John I, martyr

498:Nestorian Catholicate formed in Persia

498-506 Anti-Pope Lawrence, Lawrencian schism

500:Enammavu church founded

500 Incense introduced in Christian church service, first plans of Vatican

500? Codex Sangallensis vg: earliest extant Latin Vulgate, Gospels

500? Codex Argenteus (got): earliest nearly complete Gothic (German), Gospels

500? Codex Cottonianus: Greek Genesis

502 Narsai of Mealletha, Syrian poet, heads Nestorian school in Nisibis(498)

503:St. George church, Edappally founded

510:Udayamperore (Diamper) church built.

518-527 Justin I: emperor of Byzantine (former eastern Roman) empire

522:Cosmas Indicopleustes visits South India.

552:Alexandrian merchant Cosmas Indicopleustus visited Malankara

524 Boethius, b.480?, Roman Christian philosopher, wrote: "Theological

Tractates", "Consolation of Philosophy"; (Loeb Classics) (Latin)

525 Dionysius Exiguus sets Christian calendar (a.d.) & Jesus' birth @ 23 Dec 1AD

526 Earthquake in Antioch kills 250,000

526-530 Pope Felix IV (III)

527-565 Justinian the Great, Byzantine emperor

527 Letters of Fulgentius, early Christian church father

529 Justinian closes 1000yr Athen's School of Philosophy, declared Paganistic

530-532 Pope Boniface II

530 Anti-Pope Dioscorus

532-535 Pope John II

533 N. Africa captured by Belisarius from Vandals, becomes Byzantine province

534-870 Malta becomes Byzantine province

535-536 Pope Agapitus I

536-537 Pope Silverius, martyr

537-555 Pope Vigilius, involved in death of Pope Silverius, conspired with Justinian

and Theodora, excommunicated by N. African bishops in 550

539-562 War between Byzantine empire and Persia

542 Plague in Constantinople from Egyptian and Syrian rats, spreads to Europe

543 Justinian condemns Origen (254), disastrous earthquakes hit the world

541-546 Codex Fuldensis vg(F): Latin Vulgate, 27NT + Epistle to Laodiceans

544 Justinian condemns the "3 Chapters" of Theodore of Mopsuestia (d.428) and

other writings of "2-natures" Christology of Council of Chalcedon (451)

547 Pope Vigilius issues "Iudicatum" supporting Justinian's anti-"2-natures"

547 Plague reaches Britain

548 Letters of Apringius Pacensis, early Christian church father

550-1453 Medieval Greek of Constantinople (Byzantium) becomes standard Greek

550 Byzantine Greek Text, standard Eastern Bible, much smoothing & conflation

550 St. David converts Wales to Christianity, crucifix becomes Christian icon

550? Codex Claromontanus (Dp): Greek/Latin Pauline Epistles + Canon of ~250AD

lists 27NT+Barnabas+Hermas+Acts_of_Paul+Apocalypse_of_Peter;

"Western" type

550? Codex Mediolanensis vg(M): Latin Vulgate Gospels

550? Codex Veronensis: Greek & Old Latin Psalms

555 2nd Council of Constantinople, 5th ecumenical, called by Justinian

559:Yakoub Burdana consecrated Ahoudemme

556-561 Pope Pelagius I, selected by Justinian, endorsed "Iudicatum" (547)

561-574 Pope John III, authorized by Justinian

565-578 Justin II, Byzantine emperor

567 Letters of Primasius, Cassiodorus; early Christian church fathers

570:Birth of Mohammad, Prophet of Islam in Mecca.

572-628 War between Byzantine empire and Persia

575-579 Pope Benedict I, authorized by Justin II,

578:Death of Mar Yakoub Burdana

578-582 Tiberius II, Byzantine emperor

579-590 Pope Pelagius II, died of plague

582-602 Maurice, Byzantine emperor

587 Visigoths of Spain converted to Christianity

589 Lombards of Italy converted to Christianity

590 Plague in Rome

590-604 Pope Gregory I, commanded that a way be found to collect and preserve the

singing of the Benedictine monks of Santo Domingo de Silos (now known as

Gregorian Chant)

594 End of plague which began in 542 and "halved" the population of Europe!

596 St. Augustine of Canterbury sent to convert Britain to Christianity

600? Codex Harleianus vg(Z): Latin Vulgate Gospels

600? Codex Philoxenian/Harclean Syr(ph/h): Syriac 27NT, "Western" text-type

602-610 Phocas, Byzantine emperor after killing Maurice

604-606 Pope Sabinian, authorized by Phocas

606-607 Pope Boniface III, authorized by Phocas

607-615 Pope Boniface IV, authorized by Phocas

609 Roman Pantheon (a Pagan Temple) renamed Church of Santa Maria Rotonda

610-641 Heraclius, Byzantine emperor after killing Phocas

611 Mohammed's reported vision of Allahon Mount Hira

614 Persians take Damascas and Jerusalem and "Holy Cross of Christ"

615 earliest records of some of Mohammed's teachings

615-618 Pope Deusdedit

619-625 Pope Boniface V, authorized by Heraclius

622-680 Monothelite controversy: condemned at 6th Ecum. Council of Constantinople

622 first year in Muslim calendar, The Hegira, 1a.h., (a.h. = anno hegirae)

624 Mohammed marries Aisha, daughter of Abu Bekr

625 Paulinus of Rome comes to convert Northumbria to Christianity

625-638 Pope Honorius I

625 Mohammed begins dictation of Qur'an (Koran) to his scribe

626 King Edwin of Northumbria founds Edinburgh and begins Christianization

627 Byzantines defeat Persians at Nineveh

628-643:Isho Yahab was the Nestorian Patriarch

628 Emperor Heraclius wins back "Cross of Christ" from Persians

628 Mohammed captures Mecca & writes to rulers of the world explaining Islam

629:Consecration of Morooso as 1st Malpan

629 Heraclius recovers Jerusalem from Persians

629 Pope Honorius I sides with Emperor Heraclius and Monothelites (622)

632 Mohammed, b. 570?, Arab prophet and founder of Islam

632 East Anglia Christianized

632 Abu Bekr, first Islamic Caliph, seat at Medina

634 Omar I, 2d Caliph, takes Syria/Persia/Egypt;defeats Heraclius in Holy War

635 Christianization of Wessex

635-750 Damascus becomes capital of Islamic Caliphs

636 Southern Irish Church submits to Roman Catholicism

637 Jerusalem captured by Islam

638 Emp. Heraclius' "Ecthesis", decrees Christ of one nature: "Monothelites"

640 Pope Severinus

640 Library of Alexandria, "The Center of Western Culture," with 300,000

ancient papyrus scrolls, is completely distroyed.



640-1380 Period between destruction of Library of Alexandria and the first complete

English translation of the Bible



640-642 Pope John IV

642-649 Pope Theodore I

649-654 Pope Martin I, martyr

654-657 Pope Eugene I

657-673 Pope Vitalian

673-676 Pope Adeodatus II

676-678 Pope Donus

678-682 Pope Agatho

682-684 Pope Leo II

684-685 Pope Benedict II

685-686 Pope John V

686-687 Pope Conon

687 Anti-Pope Theodore

687 Anti-Pope Paschal

687-701 Pope Sergius I

690? Earliest Bible translations into England's vernacular, continued work by Bede

and others from this point forward

701-705 Pope John VI

705-708 Pope John VII

708 Pope Sisinnius

708-715 Pope Constantine

715-731 Pope Gregory II

731-741 Pope Gregory III

741-752 Pope Zachary

750? Tower added to St Peter's Basilica at the front of the atrium

752-757 Pope Stephen II (III)

757-768 Pope Paul I

767 Anti-Pope Constantine

768 Anti-Pope Philip

768-772 Pope Stephen III (IV)

772-795 Pope Adrian I

774:13th century- Viraraghavan Perumal gave a copper plaque (Vira Raghavan Perumal Chepped) granting certain titles and privileges to Eravikarthen of Mahadevar Pattanam (Kollam).9th century- persian- palavi scripts engraved on stone crosses are installed in the churches in Kerala- Knanya Valiya Palli, Kottayam,Kadamattom, Alangad,Muttuchira Catholic Church

780-823:Thimothy I was the Patriarch

795-816 Pope Leo III

800-1102:Kulasekhara rule in Malankara

816-817 Pope Stephen IV (V)

817-824 Pope Paschal I

823:Immigration of Mar Sabresho,Mar Aphrod at Kollam

824-827 Pope Eugene II

825-858:Theodosius was the Patriarch

827 Pope Valentine

827-844 Pope Gregory IV

844 Anti-Pope John

844-847 Pope Sergius II

847-855 Pope Leo IV

849:King Ayyanadikal of Venad, by the Tharisappalli copper plate grants reconfirms the 72 royal privileges of the Nazranies (Kollam Chepped) 850? King Alfred translation of several Bible books into English vernacular, also

done by Aldhelm and Aelfric

855-858 Pope Benedict III

855 Anti-Pope Anastasius

856 Earthquake in Corinth kills 45,000

858-867 Pope Nicholas I

867-872 Pope Adrian II

868:Kaphthurtha Synod

872-882 Pope John VII

882-884 Pope Marinus I

883:King Alfred's envoys Sighelm and Aethelstan conveys alms to St.Thomas in India

883 Anglo-Saxons bishops sent by King Alfred visit the tomb of St. Thomas (Mylapore).

884-885 Pope Adrian III

885-891 Pope Stephen V (VI)

891-896 Pope Formosus

896 Pope Boniface VI

896-897 Pope Stephen VI (VII)

897 Pope Romanus

897-898 Pope Theodore II

898-900 Pope John IX

900-903 Pope Benedict IV

903-904 Pope Leo V

903 Anti-Pope Christopher

904-911 Pope Sergius III

905:Mar Dehanaha,Raban,Younan,Maravan at Malankara.

911-913 Pope Anastasius III

913-914 Pope Landus

914-928 Pope John X

928 Pope Leo VI

928-931 Pope Stephen VII (VIII)

931-936 Pope John XI

936-939 Pope Leo VII

939-942 Pope Stephen VIII (IX)

942-946 Pope Marinus II

946-955 Pope Agapitus II

955-963 Pope John XII

963-964 Pope Leo VIII

964-965 Pope Benedict V

965-973 Pope John XIII

973-974 Pope Benedict VI

974 Anti-Pope Boniface VII

974-983 Pope Benedict VII

983-985 Pope John XIV

985-996 Pope John XV

988:Mar Yuhanon Metropolitan(Persian Bishop) at Malankara

996-999 Pope Gregory V

997 Anti-Pope John XVI

999-1003 Pope Sylvester II

1003-1004 Pope John XVII

1004-1009 Pope John XVIII

1009-1012 Pope Sergius IV

1012-1024 Pope Benedict VIII

1012 Anti-Pope Gregory

1024-1032 Pope John XIX

1032-1045 Pope Benedict IX

1045 Pope Sylvester III

1045 Pope Benedict IX

1045-1046 Pope Gregory VI

1046-1047 Pope Clement II

1047-1048 Pope Benedict IX

1048-1049 Pope Damasus II

1049-1055 Pope Leo IX

1054 Split between Eastern and Western churches formalized, Orthodox Church

founded

1055-1057 Pope Victor II

1056:Mar Yuseph Metropolitan(Persian Bishop) at Malankara

1057-1059 Pope Stephen IX (X)

1057 Earthquake in Cilicia (Asia Minor) kills 60,000

1058 Anti-Pope Benedict X

1059-1061 Pope Nicholas II

1061-1073 Pope Alexender II

1061 Anti-Pope Honorius II

1073-1086 Gregory VII

1080 Anti-Pope Clement III

1086-1088 Pope Victor III

1088-1099 Pope Urban II

1095-1291 10 Crusades, 1st called by Pope Urban II, to restore Asia Minor to Byzantium

and conquer the Holy Land from the Turks

1098:Edessa captured by Emir of Mosul

1099-1118 Pope Paschal II

1100 Anti-Pope Theodoric

1102 Anti-Pope Albert

1105 Anti-Pope Sylvester IV

1118-1119 Pope Gelasius II

1118 Anti-Pope Gregory VIII

1119-1124 Pope Callistus II

1122:Mar Yakob Metropolitan(Persian Bishop) at Malankara

1124-1130 Pope Honorius II

1124 Anti-Pope Celestine II

1130-1143 Pope Innocent II

1130 Anti-Pope Anacletus II

1138 Anti-Pope Victor IV

1142:Relics of St.Thomas shifted to Chieos

1143-1144 Pope Celestine II

1144-1145 Pope Lucius II

1145-1153 Pope Eugene III

1153-1154 Pope Anastasius IV

1154-1159 Pope Adrian IV

1159-1181 Pope Alexander III

1159 Anti-Pope Victor IV

1164 Anti-Pope Paschal III

1168 Anti-Pope Callistus III

1179 Anti-Pope Innocent III

1181-1185 Pope Lucius III

1185-1187 Pope Urban III

1187 Pope Gregory VIII

1187-1191 Pope Clement III

1191 Pope Celestine III

1198-1216 Pope Innocent III

1206 Rosary is reportedly given to St. Dominic by an apparition of Mary

1215 Dominican order begun

1216-1227 Pope Honorius III

1221:Mar Yuseph Metropolitan(Persian Bishop) at Malankara

1223 Franciscan order begun

1225-1274 Thomas Aquinas, theologian and philosopher

1226-86:Bar Hebraeus,Catholicose of Persia

1227-1241 Pope Gregory IX

1241-1243 Pope Celestine IV

1243-1254 Pope Innocent IV

1254-1261 Pope Alexander IV

1260 Date which a 1988 Vatican sponsored scientific study places the origin of the

Shroud of Turin

1261-1265 Pope Urban IV

1265-1271 Pope Clement IV

1271-1276 Pope Gregory X

1276 Pope Innocent V

1276 Pope Adrian V

1276-1277 Pope John XXI

1277-1294 Pope Nicholas IV

1285:Mar David Metropolitan (Persian Bishop) at Malankara

1292:Marco Polo a Venetian traveler, visited the tomb of St. Thomas (at Mylapore), and Kerala

c. 1293 Marco Polo stays on the Coromandel Coast, describes the tomb of St. Thomas as a place of pilgrimage, and visits Christians and Jews in Quilon.


1294 Pope Celestine V

1294-1303 Pope Boniface VIII

1303-1305 Pope Benedict XI

1305-1316 Pope Clement V

1316-1334 Pope John XXII

1321? The Divine Comedy, by Dante Alighieri

1324: Oderic the Italian Franciscan speaks about Mylapore

1328 Anti-Pope Nicholas V

1329:Dominican Metropolitan Jordana at Quilon

1334-1342 Pope Benedict XII

1341:The disappearance of Musseris and Mahadevar towns due to floods

1342-1352 Pope Clement VI

1350? English begins to emerge as the national language of England

1350? Renaissance begins in Italy

1352-1362 Pope Innocent VI

1354 Earliest extant documentation stating the existence of the Shroud of Turin

1362-1370 Pope Urban V

1370-1378 Pope Gregory XI

1378-1389 Pope Urban VI

1378 Anti-Pope Clement VII



1380-1517 Period between the 1st complete English translation of the Bible and Martin

Luther's 95 Theses



1380-1382 John Wycliffe, eminant theologian at Oxford, makes NT (1380) and OT (with

help of Nicholas of Hereford) (1382) translations in English, 1st complete

translation to English, included deutercanonical books, preached against

abuses, expressed unorthodox views of the sacraments (Penance and

Eucharist), the use of relics, and against celibacy of the clergy

1384 John Purvey, follower of John Wycliffe, revises Wycliffe's translation

1389-1404 Pope Boniface IX

1390? Wycliffe's teachings condemned repeatedly in England

1394 Anti-Pope Benedict XIII

1404-1406 Pope Innocent VII

1406-1417 Pope Gregory XII

1407:Mar Yabalaho Metropolitan (Persian Bishop) at Malankara

1408 Council of Oxford forbids translations of the Scriptures into the vernacular

unless and until they were fully approved by Church authority, sparked by

Wycliffite Bible, Sir Thomas More said: "It neither for biddith the translations

to be read that were already well done of old before Wycliffe's days, nor

damneth his because it was new but because it was naught; nor prohibiteth

new to be made but provideth that they shall not be read if they be made

amiss till they be by good examination amended." ("A Dialogue against

Heresies")

1409 Anti-Pope Alexander V

1410 Anti-Pope John XXIII

1412-1431 St. Joan of Arc, French national heroine

1415 Council of Florence condemns all of Wycliffe's works, but the actual Bibles

continued to be used after having the heretical prologue removed, and were

possessed by both religious houses and those of the nobility and tacitly

accepted by Catholics

1417-1431 Pope Martin V

1431-1447 Pope Eugene IV

1439 Anti-Pope Felix V

1447-1455 Pope Nicholas V

1453 Byzantium succeeded by the Ottoman Empire

1455-1458 Pope Callistus III

1458-1464 Pope Pius II

1464-1471 Pope Paul II

1466-1536 Desiderius Erasmus, Dutch scholar, Greek NT used in many 16th century

translations

1471-1484 Pope Sixtus IV

1473-1481 Sistine Chapel built, under supervision of Giovanni de Dolci

1478 Inquisition established by Pope Sixtus IV

1483-1546 Martin Luther, leader of Protestant reformation, preached that only faith

leads to salvation without mediation of clergy or good works, attacked

authority of the Pope, rejected priestly celibacy, recommended individual

study of the Bible (see 1517, 1522)

1484-1492 Pope Innocent VIII

1488-1569 Miles Coverdale, Augustinian friar who left the Order, repudiated

Catholicism, 1st Protestant Bishop of Exeter

1490:3 persons from Malankara set forth to meet the Caldeah Patriarch Mar Shemavu. Two of them received priest hood Fr. Joseph and Fr. Geevarghese. In 1496 they returned with Metropolitans Mar Thomas and Mar Yuhanon

1491-1556 Ignatius of Loyola, founded the Jesuit order (see 1534)

1492 Christopher Columbus's first voyage, discovers San Salvador - begins

Spanish colonization of the New World

1492-1503 Pope Alexander VI

1498:On May 21 Vasco Da Gama, Portuguese sailor arrived for the first time in Kappad near Kozhikode

1500:On 30 August Portuguese Admiral Pedro Alvarez Cabral visited Kozhikode and 1501:Fr. Joseph along with Cabral go on a Europeantour

1502:On 29 October Portuguese sailor Vasco Da Gama comes to Kozhikode the second time.

1502:On November 19 the Christians of Kodungalloor meet Vasco Da Gama for the first time.

1502 Thomas Christian leaders ask Vasco da Gama for an alliance against Muslim predators.

The Dawn of Missions


1503-04:Portuguese captured Cochin, Cranganore. Dominican Priests at Kochi.

1503-49:The three Metropolitans, namely Mar Yabella, Mar Denaha and Mar Jocob, Nestorian bishops, in Malankara

1503: Sep 27 Work commenced on Cochin Fort and the Santa Cruz church

Kochi



1503 Pope Pius III

1503-1513 Pope Julius II

1505-1572 John Knox, Protestant reformer in Scotland (see 1560)

1506 Pope Julius II orders the Old St Peter's Basilica torn down and authorizes

Donato Bramante to plan a new structure, demolition completed in 1606

1508-1512 Michelangelo frescoes the Sistine Chapel's vaulted ceiling

1509-1547 Henry VIII ruler of England

1509-1564 John Calvin, preached predetermination, good conduct and success were signs

of election

1513-1522 Pope Leo X

1514: Portuguese Padroado begun.

1517-1994 Modern Era of Christianity - Luther, Calvin lay the seeds of modern

Protestantism, England breaks away from the Catholic Church



1517 95 Theses (Martin Luther)

1518-1532 St Terese of Avila

1520 Luther excommunicated

1522-1523 Pope Adrian VI

1522 Luther�s German NT translation

1523-1534 Pope Clement VII

1523:Portugues opened the Tomb of St. Thomas

1524:Dec 24 Vasco de Gama buried at St. Francis Church, Fort Cochin

1524 South German peasant uprising, repressed with Luther's support, begins 1.5

century long religious wars

1525-1534 Tyndale�s translation of the NT from Greek text of Erasmus (1466) compared

against the Vulgate and the Pentateuch from the Hebrew (1525) compared to

Vulgate and Luther's German version (1530), first printed edition, used as a

vehicle by Tyndale for bitter attacks on the Church, reflects influence of

Luther's NT of 1522 in rejecting "priest" for "elder", "church" for

"Congregation"

1530 Augsburg Confession, Martin Luther founds the Lutheran Church

1531 Reported apparition of Mary at Guadalupe, Mexico, considered "worthy of

belief" by the Catholic Church

1531 Earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal kills 30,000

1534 Henry VIII breaks England away from the Catholic church, confiscates

monastic property, beginning of Episcopal Church

1534:Nov 3 Goa Diocese errected. The Parishes of Kannur, Cochin, Quilon, Colombo and Sao Tome (Madras) belonged to it

1534-1550 Pope Paul III

1534 Jesuit order founded by Lyola (1491-1556), helped reconvert large areas of

Poland, Hungary, and S. Germany and sent missionaries to the New World,

India, and China

1535-1537 Coverdale�s Bible (see 1488), used Tyndale's (1525) translation along with

Latin and German versions, included Apocrypha at the end of the OT (like

Luther) as was done in later English versions, 1537 edition received royal

license, but banned in 1546

1536 Tyndale put to death, left his OT translation in manuscript, English

ecclesiaastical authorities ordered his Bible burned because it was thought to

be part of Lutheran reform

1537-1551 Matthew Bible, by John Rogers (1500-1555), based on Tyndale and

Coverdale received royal license but not authorized for use in public worship,

numerous editions, 1551 edition contained offensive notes (based on Tyndale)

1536-1541 Michelangelo paints the Last Judgement

1539-1552 Richard Taverner's (1505-1577) revisions of Matthew Bible, mostly NT

revisions since he didn't know Hebrew, 1st edition most reliable

1539-1569 Great Bible, by Thomas Cromwell, 1st English Bible to be authorized for

public use in English churches, defective in many places, based on last

Tyndale's NT of 1534-1535, corrected by a Latin version of the Hebrew OT,

Latin Bible of Erasmus, and Complutensian Polyglot, last edition 1569, never

denounced by England

1540.A franciscan seminary is established in Kodungalloor

1542-51:The Jesuit Missionary Francis Xavier arrives in Malankara

1542 Conocation makes an unsuccessful attempt to correct the Great Bible against

the Vulgate

1542 Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier and two Tamil assistants teach the Apostles' Creed, Lord's Prayer, and Ten Commandments to Paravars (fisherfolk on Coromandel Coast), baptizing 10,000 in a single month.

1543 Parliament bans Tyndale's translation as a "crafty, false and untrue

translation", although 80% of the words were in the RV

1545:Mar Abraham Metropolitan (Persian Bishop) at Malankara

1545-1563 Council of Trent, Catholic Reformation, or counter-reformation, met

Protestant challenge, clearly defining an official theology

1546 King Henry VIII forbids anyone to have a copy of Tyndale's or Coverdale's NT

1547-1553 Edward VI ruler of England

1548:Dominican Monastery founded in Cochin

1549:Mar Abuna Jacob, A Chaldean Bishop, stayed at St. Antonio Monastery, Cochin

1549 Book of Common Prayer (Episcopal Church)

1550: First Jesuit House in Kochi

1550-1555 Pope Julius III

1550? St. Thomas More, Cranmer, and Foxe affirm the existence of English versions

of portions of the Bible, including the Gospels (11th century), Mark, Luke,

Epistles of Paul (14th century), Apocalypse (11th century)

1552:Dec 3 Death of St. Francis Xavier

1553-1558 Mary I ruler of England, publications of English Scriptures cease (except for

Geneva NT of 1557), many clerics leave England

1553 Pontifical Gregorian University founded at Vatican City

1555:Mattancherry Palace was built by Portuguese for the King of Cochin

1555 Pope Marcellus II

1555-1559 Pope Paul IV

1556-69:Mar Joseph,Nestorian bishop, in Malankara

1556 Beza�s Latin NT

1557:Goa made an Archbishopric

1558-1603 Elizabeth I ruler of England

1559-1566 Pope Pius IV

1560 Geneva Bible, NT a revision of Matthew's version of Tyndale with use of

Beza's NT (1556), OT a thorough revision of Great Bible, appointed to be read

in Scotland (but not England), at least 140 editions

1560 Scotch Presbyterian Church founded by John Knox (1505-1572), due to

disagreement with Lutherans over sacraments and church government

1563 39 Articles (Episcopal Church)

1565:Archdiocese of Angamaly erected

1566-1572 Pope Pius V

1567:Jews shifted Mattancherry.

1568:Synagogue of White Jews built in Cochin.

1568-97:Mar Abraham,Nestorian bishop,in Malankara

1571 Superior force of Turks intent upon conquering Christian Europe is beaten

decisively by Christian sailors reportedly calling upon the name of Our Lady

of the Rosary

1572-1585 Pope Gregory XIII

1572-1606 Bishop�s Bible, an inadequate and unsatisfactory revision of the Great Bible

checked against the Hebrew text, 1st to be published in England by episcopal

authority

1572 with use of Rheims NT of 1582 - included Apocropha, alterations found in many editions through 1800, revisors accused of being "damnable corrupters of God's word"

1577:Vaippicotta Seminary of the Jesuits started.

1579:Augustinians reached Cochin.

1582 Rheims NT, based on Coverdale, Bishops', Geneva, follows Wycliffe

1583:Synod at Angamaly by Bishop Mar Abraham

1585-1590 Pope Sixtus V

1590-1591 Pope Urban VII

1590 Sistine edition of the Vulgate

1590 Michelangelo�s dome in St Peter's Basilica completed

1591-1592 Pope Innocent IX

1592-1605 Pope Clement VIII

1596 Ukranian Catholic Church forms when Ukranian subjects of the king of Poland

are reunited with Rome, largest Byzantine Catholic Church

1597:Bishop Mar Abraham, the last foreign Archbishop, died and was laid to rest at St. Hormis church, Angamaly

1598:Mar Alleshu Metropolitan (Paranki Bishop) at Malankara.

1599-1653:Roman Period

1599:Dec 20 Fr. Francis Roz was declared bishop of Angamaly.

1599:Jun 20-26 Archbishop Alexis Menezes convenes the Synod of Diamper (Udayamperoor), the Mar Thoma Christians were transferred from the Eastern Syrian Church to the Roman Catholic Church.

1600:Aug 4 Padroado rule imposed on Nazranies.

1601-24:Francis Roz,as the first Latin bishop of the St. Thomas Christians

1603-1625 James I ruler of England, 1st to call himself King of Great Britain, became

official with Act of Union in 1707

1604:Geevarghese Archadiyoken died

1605 Pope Leo XI

1605-1621 Pope Paul V

1606 Roberto de Nobili begins a 50-year career in the Jesuit Madurai Mission, adopting Brahman culture and becoming a renowned scholar and poet.

1606 Carlo Maderno redesigns St Peter's Basilica into a Latin cross

1609 Baptist Church founded by John Smyth, due to objections to infant baptism

and demands for church-state separation

1609-1610 Rheims-Douay Bible, 1st Catholic English translation, OT published in two

volumes, based on an unofficial Louvain text corrected by Sistine Vulgate

(1590), NT is Rheims text of 1582

1609:Dec.3 Erection of the Diocese of Cranganore. The Archdiocese of Angamaly suppressed.

1610:Dec 22 The Metropolitan of Goa limits the Pastoral Jurisdiction of Nazranies to Malabar.

1611-1800 King James (Authorized) Version, based on Bishop's Bible of
1621-1623 Pope Gregory XV

1622 Congregatio de Propaganda Fide is created to send missionaries into areas of India outside of Portuguese Padroado authority.

1623-1644 Pope Urban VIII

1624 Dominican Seminary at Kaduthuruthy.

1624-1641:The administration of the Jesuit Arch Bishop Stephen D Britto

1625-1649 Charles I ruler of England

1626:Feb 5 Edappally Ashram started for the Religious Community of St. Thomas Christians

1633 AV published in Scotland

1644 Long Parliament directed that only Hebrew canon only be read in the Church

of England (effectively removed the Apocropha)

1641-1659:The administration of the Jesuit Arch Bishop Francis Garcia

1644-1655 Pope Innocent X

1648-1649:Archdeacon Thomas writes to the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch and Babylon for help



1637-70:Archdeacon Parambil Thomas(1637-53)

1652:Aug 23 Mar Ahathulla arrived at Surat,Mylapore,Cochin,The Jesuit of Mylapore, Mar Ahatulla in jail,the visit to Mylapore by ship with two deacons,Kochiyitty and Kurien

1653 May 16:The Oath of Coonen Cross at Mattancherry, Cochin some Thomas Christians declare independence from Roman Catholic authority


1653:The first Indian Bishop Mar Thoma I, was raised to the dignity by Twelve Priests at Alangad

1653-70 Mar Thoma I(1653-70)

1653-1658 Oliver Cromwell ruler of England

1655-1667 Pope Alexander VII


1658-1712 Richard Cromwell ruler of England

1657-1663 Carmelite Fathers -Fr.Joseph and Fr. Hyacinth convene a reconciliation meetting

1657:Apostolic Commissary Joseph of St. Mary ocd (Sebastiani), a Carmelite, in Malabar.

1659:Dec 3 The Vicariate of Malabar is erected by Pope Alexander VII.

1659:Dec 24 Joseph Sebastini bishop and appointed the Vicar Apostolic of Malabar.

1660-1685 Charles II king of England, restoration of monarchy in England beginning under

Charles II, continuing through James II, reversed decision of Long Parliament

of 1644, reinstating the Apocrypha, reversal not heeded by non-conformists

1661-63:Dutch capture Kollam (1661), Kodungalloor (1662) and Kochi (1663) from the Portuguese

1663:Bishop Joseph Sebastini consecrates Chandy Kathanar (Palliveettil) of Pakalomattom family as Metropolitan Alexander D Kampo of the Romo- Syrian denomination.
Malankara Church divided into two factions.
a. Malankara Syrian Church
b. Roma Syrian Church

1665:Mar Gregorios of Jeruselem came to Malankara



1667-1670 Pope Clement IX

1667 Earthquake in Shemaka, Caucasia kills 80,000

1670:Mar Thoma I pass away on 22 April. His mortal remains interred in St. Mary's Church, Angamali.

1670-1686:Mar Thoma II

1671:Mar Gregorios passes away on 24 April. Laid to rest in Mar Thoma Church, North Paravur

1670-1676 Pope Clement X

1676-1689 Pope Innocent XI



1682:Seminary for Syrians at Verapoly

1685:Two Metropolitans from Syria visit Malankara
a. Mar Baselios yeldo (1685). Passes away after thirteen days. (September 29) His mortal remains interred in Mar Thoman Church, Kothamangalam.
b. Mar Ivanios Hidayathulla (1685-93) was laid to rest in Mar Thoman Church Mulanthuruthy.

1686-1688:Mar Thoma III

1686: On 31 April Mar Thoma II's demise. Laid to rest in St. Mary's Church, Niranam

1686:Hortus Malabaricus in 12 volumes printed in 17 years.

1685-1688 James II king of England, deposed



1687:Jan 2 Bishop Mar Chandy Palliveettil expires.

1688: On 19 April Mar Thoma III's demise. Lay to rest Mar Thoman Church, Kadambanad

1688-1728:Mar Thoma IV



1689-1702 William III king of England, with Mary II as queen until 1694

1689-1691 Pope Alexander VIII

1691-1700 Pope Innocent XII


1692:Mar Anthrayose demise. Lay to rest Kallada Pally, Kallada

1693 Earthquake in Catania, Italy kills 60,000

1694:Mar Ivanios Hidayathulla's demise. Lay to rest Mulanthuruthy Church, Mulanthuruthy


1700:Feb 20 Fr. Angelus Francis, a Carmelite, is appointed as the Vicar Apostolic of Malabar

1700-1721 Pope Clement XI

1702-1714 Anne queen of England

1706 German Pietists Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg and Heinrich Plütschau reach Tranquebar and establish a printing press and charity school.

1708:The arrival of Mar Gabriel Caldaeh. Death in 1731

1709:Mar 13 Vicariate of Malabar is suppressed and Pope Clement XI erects the Vicariate of Verapoly

1710 Jesuit missionary Constanzo Giuseppe Beschi begins a spectacular career as the greatest Tamil scholar of the age.

1714 AV published in Ireland

1718 Catholic English version of NT by Dr. Nary, much less bulky than Reims-

Douay

1721-1724 Pope Innocent XIII

1724-1730 Pope Benedict XIII

1727-1760 George II king of England

1728:On 24 March Mar Thoma IV's demise. Laid to rest in Kandanad

1728-1765:Mar Thoma V

1730-1740 Pope Clement XII

1730 Catholic English version of NT, revision of Reims NT by Dr. Robert Witham

1731:Mar Gabriel demise. Lay to rest Cheriya Pally, Kottayam

1733 Aaron becomes the first Tamil evangelical pastor in Thanjavur.


1738-1816 New Catholic English versions of NT by Dr. Richard Challoner and Francis

Blyth O.D.C., Bernard MacMahon, Dr Troy

1740-1758 Pope Benedict XIV

1748-97:Mar Ivanios, bishop, in Malankara

1750 C. F. Schwartz begins career as a renowned evangelical missionary-statesman-scholar, diplomat, and mentor to leaders of later mass conversion movements in Tirunelveli.

1752 AV published in New World colonies

1751:The arrival of Catholicos Mar Baselios Shakralla,Yuhanon Mar Gregorios,Yuhanon Ramban (Mar Ivanios 1752) on 4 May.

1754:A Treaty of Friendship between Mar Thoma and Syrian Metropolitans

1755 Earthquake in Northern Persia kills 40,000

1755 Earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal kills 60,000 (estimated at 8.75 Richter)

1758-1769 Pope Clement XIII

1760-1820 George III king of England

1761:On 10 July Consecration of Metropolitan Mar Thoma VI

1764:On 20 October, Catholicos Baselios Shakalla's Demise.He was laid to rest in the Marthamariam church, Kandanad.

1765:On 8 May Mar Thoma V passes away. Laid to rest in Niranam.

1765-1808:Mar Thoma VI (Mar Dionysius I)

1769-1775 Pope Clement XIV

1770:On 10 July Mar Gregorios consecrates Mar Dionysios as Mar Thoma VI

1771-72:Mar Gregorios consecrates Kattumangatt Kurian Ramban as Mar Coorilos at Mattancherry Church. Mar Coorilos established an independent Church in Thozhiyoor

1772:Mar Thoma VI accepted re-ordination by Mar Gregorios assisted by Mar Ivanios

1772:First Malayalam book "Sampskhepa Vedartham" (Rome) by Clement Pianius.

1775-1800 Pope Pius VI

1773:Establishment of an Independent Thozhiyoor Syrian

1773:Mar Gregorios passes away. Laid to rest in Mulanthuruthy.

1773:Pope Clement XIV suppresses the Jesuit Order, except in Russia and Prussia.

1773 Indian Empire (Raj) established.

1776 British colonies in America declare independence from England, American

Revolution

1778-1792:Efforts to reconcile with the Roman Catholic Church

1782:Dec 16 Kariyattil Joseph elected Archbp. of Cranganore; Consecr. Lisbon 1783; Died Goa on the way back to Malabar, 9th Sept. 1786.

1783 Earthquake in Calabria, Italy kills 30,000

1785:"Varthamanappusthakam", the first written travelogue in India by Paremakkal Thomma Kathanar.

1789-92:Tippu Sultan's attack the destruction of Churches from Kunnamkulam to Angamali the forceful conversion and persecution of Christians shifting of Church headquarters from Kandanad to Kottayam.

1792:Thachil Mathu Tharakan's manoeuvres- Mar Dionysios in prison leaves Alleppy.

1792 William Carey's Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians to Use Means for the Conversion of Heathens evokes waves of evangelical missionary voluntarism.


1795:Oct 20 Conquest of Cochin by the British.

1796:Mar Dionysios consecrates Ramban Mathew as the succeeding Metropolitan (Mar Thoma VII) on 5 May at Chengannur.

1797 Earthquake in Quito, Ecuador kills 41,000

1799 Serampore Mission established by William Carey, Joshua Marshman, and David Ward.1714-1727 George I king of England1738 Methodist Church founded by Rev John Wesley

1800-1823 Pope Pius VII

1805-9:Metropolitan Theoscoros arrives from Syria.(Dionysios sent back this Metropolitan on the strength of his administrative authorities)

1806:On 23 November, Dr. Claudius Bukanan the principal of Fort William College, Calcutta, meets Mar Dionysios at Kandanad Church

1807:Ramabn Philipose of Kayamkulam translates the Bible ino Malayalam

1808:Mar Dionysios deposits 3000 puvarahan (10,000 rupees) with the East India company as interest money at the rate of 8%

1808:On 8 April,Mar Dionysios passes away and laid to rest at St.Mary's Church, Puthencavu.

1809:Mar Thoma VIl receives for the first time the interest of the 'Vattipanam'.

1808-09:Mar Thoma VII

1809:On 2 July,Mar Thoma VIII takes charge of the Church administration

1809:Mar Thoma VII passes away on 4 July. Burial at Kolencherry.

1809-16:Mar Thoma VIII

1809:Pulikottil Joseph Malpan receives the title of Ramban from Mar Thoma

1809:Assembly at Kandanad

1810:Ramban Joseph consults Colonel John Mundro to establish a seminary for priests.

1801-1877 Brigham Young, Mormon leader, colonized Utah

1811 Dr. Hay's revision of Challoner's version

1813 American Congregationalists (A.B.C.F.M.) found the Maratha Mission. Other missions soon follow.

1820-1830 George IV king of England

1822 Earthquake in Aleppo, Asia Minor kills 22,000

1815 Catholic Bible Society NT, based on Challoner's

1811:The Malayalam Bible translated by Ramban Philipose of Kayamkulam is printed in courien press and 100 copies of the same handed over by Dr. Claudius Bukanan to Mar Thoma.

1811:On 11 November Ramban Philipose of Kayamkulam passes away. His mortal remains were interred in Kannamkode Church, Adoor.

1813:Colonel Munro hands over Rs. 3360, which is, interest amount of the 'Vattipanam' for the years 1809 to 1813 to Ramban Joseph for constructing a seminary

1813- 15 Rani Gauri Lakshmi gifts 16 acres of land in Govind Village in Kottaym, exempting it from taxes for the purpose of building a Seminary. The construction of the building started in 1813. In 1815 the work was completed and it became operational

1815:On 21 March Pulikottil Joseph Mar Dionysios became Metropolitan. On 12 February 1816 there was a Royal Proclamation

1815-16:Pulukottil Joseph Mar Dionysios II

1816:Mar Thoma VIII passes away on 22 January. He was laid to rest in St. Mary's Church, Puthencavu

1816:On 24 November Pulikottil Mar Dionysios Passes away and was laid to rest in the Old Seminary

1816:Mar Thoma IX

1816-17:Mar Philoxenos,Kidangan(Thozhiyur)

1817-25:Punnathara Mar Dionysios III

1817:For the first time in Kerala, English education was introduced in Old Seminary, Kottayam.

1816-19:Arrival of CMS missionaries

1818:"Mavelikara Assembly" is held on 3 December at St. Mary's Church, Puthiyakavu

1816-1829 Challoner�s 3rd revision, Dr. John Lingard's translation from Greek using

Vulgate when possible

1823-1829 Pope Leo XII

1825-26:Mar Athanasios arrives from Syria. The Government sent him away from the country because of his stubborn interference in the Church matters of Malankara

1827 Mormon Church founded by Joseph Smith as a result of reported visions of

the Angel Moroni

1825-55:Cheppad Mar Dionysios IV

1829:Through the efforts of Benjamin Bailey a Malayalam New Testament is published

1829-1831 Pope Pius VIII

1830-1837 William IV king of England

1830 Reported apparition of Mary in Paris, France, considered "worthy of belief"

by the Catholic Church

1831-1846 Pope Gregory XVI

1832 Church of Christ (Disciples) organized, made up of Presbyterians in distress

over Protestant factionalism and decline of fervor

1833-34:C.M.S missionaries, Rev. Joseph Pete (1833),Rev.W.J.Woodcock (1834) arrive in Kerala

1833 Charter Renewal Act allows for full entry of missionaries into India.

1833 American Presbyterians begin work in Punjab and build a strong educational system.

1835:On 15 November Anglican Bishop Daniel Wilson of Calcutta comes to Kerala

1836:On 16 January the 'Mavelikara Padiyola was convened in st. Mary's Church with Mar Dionysios in the chair

1836 March 8:C.M.S. Missionaries and their supporters meet at mallapally and inaugurate the Anglican Church.(The second rift in the Malankara Church. The presence of a third denomination the Anglican Church)

1837-1845:Abraham Malpan of Palakunnathu (Maramon) starts Reform Movement

1837:On 11 January at Madras the C.M.S correspondence committee decides to end all relationship with Malankara Church

1837-1901 Victoria queen of England

1838-40:The college wing is shifted from the Old Seminary to a place called Fenn's Hill

1838:Apr 24 Dioceses of Cochin and Crnaganore are annexed to the Vicariate of Verapoly.

1838:The Queen of Protugal suppressed all religious Orders in Portugal and in her mission lands.

1838 Jesuit order, restored by Gregory XVI, returns to its Madurai Mission after an absence of 64 years.


1840:Apr 10 St.Thomas Christians came under the archdiocese of Verapoly.

1840:4 April Cochin Award.The Royal Court instituted by the Resident passed the Arbitrators Verdict regarding the division of the common institutions and properties of the Malankara Church and C.M.S faction.

1841 Welsh Presbyterian missionaries in the Khasi Hills build educational infrastructures; local Christians later lead conversion movements until over 95% percent of all Khasis become Christians.

1844 First Synod of Pondicherry launches Catholic reforms.


1843-1877:Palakunnathu Mathews Mar Athanasios

1842:On 14 February, Patriarch Mar Elias consecrates Mathews as Metropolitan Mar Athanasios

1843 On 17 May Palakunnath Mar Athanasios returns to Kerala after his Mardin trip

1843:Meeting at Kandanad

1846:September Yuyakim Mar Coorilos arrives in Malankara from Syria. Cheppad Dionysios relin quishes the post of Malankara Metropolitan

1846-1878 Pope Pius IX

1846 Reported apparition of Mary in La Salette, France, considered "worthy of

belief" by the Catholic Church

1848 Nehemiah (Nilakantha) Goreh is ordained as an Anglican priest.

1848 Jan-Quilon Committee-the committee that was instituted by the Travancore Government to investigate the claims of Mar Athanasios and Mar Coorilos, recognizes Mar Athanasios as Malankara Metropolitan

1849:Syrian Patriarch Mar Athanasios sends Metropolitan Stephen to Malankara Church. Due to the unwarranted interference in Church matters, the British Resident sends back the Metropolitan

1852-1922 Charles Taze Russell, founded the Jehova's Witnesses movement in the 1870s

1855 Abolition of slavery in Travancore (Kerala) opens the way for mass conversions among untouchables, lower castes, and former slave castes.

The Age of Empire

1857 The Great Mutiny begins, followed the next year by the replacement of the East India Company by the British crown.

1858 Reported apparition of Mary in Lourdes, France, considered "worthy of

belief" by the Catholic Church

1859-1959 90 Catholic NT editions, 56 Catholic editions of the whole Bible

1861:May 20 Bishop Rocos sent by the Patriarch of Chaldea reaches Kerala.

1866 Maulvi Imad id-din, ordained scholar-missionary, wins renown for apologetic writings reconciling Christian faith and Muslim culture.


1867:May 7 Property donated by Syrians to the King of Portugal to start a Seminary at Aluva. The Diocese of Cochin administered it.

1867:The Portuguese Missionaries start a seminary at Mangalapuzha for Syrian students

1864-1909:Pulicottil Joseph Mar Dionysios V

1870:Election of co-trustees of Church properties

1868 Earthquakes in Peru and Ecuador kills 40,000

1869-1870 First Vatican Council, 20th ecumenical, affirms doctrine of papal infallibility

(ie. when a pope speaks ex cathedra on faith or morals he does so with the

supreme apostolic authority, which no Catholic may question or reject)

1871 Reported apparition of Mary in Pontmain, France, considered "worthy of

belief" by the Catholic Church

1872:The establishment of Parumala Seminary

1874:Bishop Mar Elias Melus sent by the Patriarch of Chaldea reaches Kerala - Melus Schism.

1875 Earthquake in Colombia, Venezuela

1876 Jun 29-July 1:Mulanthuruthy Synod

1876 Naga Christians establish a "village of refuge" where American missionaries translate Scripture, set up schools, and lay the foundation for movements by which over 95% of Nagas eventually become Christians.

1876:The "Marthoma Church" comes into being -- Palakkunnathu Mathews Mar Athanasious.

1876:Sep 19,20 Ollur Conference. The Apostolic Visitor Leo Meurin attends the conference.

1876 Dec 10:Consecration of Metropolitans by Patriarch Peeter III
(i)Kadavil Paulose Mar Athanasios(kottayan)
(ii)Konat Geevarghese Mar Julios(Thumpamon)
(iii)Ambat Geevarghese Mar Coorilos(Ankamaly)
(iv)Chathuruthy Geevarghese Mar Gregorios(Niranam)

1877:Parumala Mar Gregorios Metropolitan starts training students for priesthood

1877:(v)Murimattim Paulose Mar Ivanios(kandanad)

(vi)Karot Simon Mar Dionysios(Cochin)

1875-77:Patriarch Mar Peter III arrives in Malankara

1876 march: On 11 March the Kerala Government withdraws the recognition given to Mar Athanasios in 1852.The court is directed to settle the controversy regarding the leadership of the Malankara Church.

1876:June 27-29 Patriarch convenes the meeting of the delegates of the Malankara Church (Synod) at the Mar Thoman Church in Mulanthuruthy. The Malankara Syrian Christian Association is formed. From then onwards, the foundation was laid for the Malankara church to become officially a part of the Antiochan Church.

1877:Parumala Seminary started

1877:June, Patriarch leaves Malankara and goes back to Syria

1878:February-the Church Managing committee decides to file legal suit against Thomas Mar Athaanasios

1878:Parumala Synod

1878-1903 Pope Leo XIII

1878 14-point creed of the Niagara Bible Conference, used by Fundamentalists

1879-89:Seminary Case(Mar Dinysios filed a case agenst Thoma Mar Athanasios

1879 Reported apparition of Mary in Knock, Ireland, considered "worthy of belief"

by the Catholic Church

1881-1894 Revised Version, called for by Church of England, used Greek based on

Septuagint (B) and (S), Massoretic text used in OT, follows Greek order of

words, greater accuracy than AV, includes Apocrypha, scholarship never

disputed

1884:District Court Verdict in favor of Mar Dionysios

1886:The High Court Verdict rejecting appeal against the District Court Verdict.

1886:Malankara Association at Old Seminary, Acquisition of MD Seminary land and formation of Brahmawar Diocese

1886 The Archdiocese of Cranganore is suppressed.

1886:Sept 1 Erection of the Catholic Hierarchy in India by Pope Leo XIII.

1886 Pandita Ramabai makes a triumphant tour of the United States.

1886 Catholic hierarchy of India established.

1887:Establishment of the Syro-Malabar Hierarchy by the Brief "Quod Jam Prideus" of Pope Leo XIII. Vicariates of Trichur and Kottayam.

1887:May 19 The St. Thomas Christians are totally segregated from the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Verapoly and from the Padroado.

1887:May 20 The Vicariates of Kottayam and Trichur reorganized and the Vicariate of Changanacherry, Ernakulam and Trichur were formed.

1888:In November, the Woodlands Estate where the M.D. Seminary, M.D. High School, Mar Elia Cathedral are situated was bought from Hew Crawford.

1888:September 5 The Reformist Group registered a new association called Malabar Mar Thoma Syrian Christian Evangelistic Association and formed the Mar Thoma Syrian Christian Church. And thus there happened the 3rd schism in the Malankara Church, Mar Thoma Church grew as the 4th community of the Church.

1888:Jesuit father Alvarez Xavier (Mangalore) leaves roman Catholic Church and joins the Orthodox Sabha.On 29 July, Fr. Alvarez is elevated as Metropolitan Mar Julius at the Old Seminary,Kottayam by Mar Athanasios and Mar Gregorios

1888 Mar Thoma Evangelistic Association founded, with missionaries reaching out to low-caste peoples, forming ashram-like settlements.

1888-89 Salvadorians, led by German missionaries, arrive in Khasi Hills and gain first converts.

1889:On 12 July the Royal Court passed its majority verdict justifying the position of Mar Dionysios.Mar Dionysios regained the seminary and other properties from the hands of Mar Athanasios

1892,95&1901:Malankara Association meetings

1895:Parumala Geevarghese Mar Gregorios sets forth on his Jerusalem trip
1891 Brahmabandhav Upadhyay is baptized as an Anglican; later joins the Catholic church.


1894 H. A. Krishna Pillai, renowned Christian poet, publishes a classical Tamil version of Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress.

1894 National Papal Seminary established at Kandy (moves to Pune in 1950s) to promote indigenization of the Indian Catholic hierarchy.

1895 Narayan Vaman Tilak (1862-1919), celebrated Brahman poet, makes a quest of reconciling Hindu heritage with devotion to Christ.

1895 On 27 January, in Parumala the consecration of the Church constructed in the name of St. Peter and St. Paul takes place

1898-1904 Twentieth Century NT, changed order of books to chronological

1901-1910 Edward VII king of England

1901 American Standard Version, recession of the RV, included words/phrases

preferred by Americans, follows Greek order of words

1901 Pentecostal Church formed in Topeka, Kansas in reaction to loss of

evangelical fervor among Methodists and other denominations

1902 Nov 2:Death of PARUMALA THIRUMENI

1902 Richard Weymouth NT, a careful literary translation

1903-1914 Pope Pius X, most recent Pope to be canonized

1904 Sundar Singh has a vision of Christ and becomes a wandering Christian sadhu.

1905 "Holy Spirit Revival" and speaking in tongues among devout school girls at Pandita Ramabai's Mukti Mission attracts world-wide attention.

1905-06 Revival in the Khasi Hills, with 8,000 converts, spreads to surrounding areas.

1908:January 1-3 The first Annual Conference of the Student's Movements takes place at Thirumoolapuram Balikamadom Girl's High School (Thiruvalla)

1908-34:Vattasseril Geevarghese Mar Dionysios VI

1909:On 10 August, Vattasseril Geevarghese Mar Dionysios is recognized as Malankara Metropolitan, "Sunthroniso"

1910-1936 George V king of England

1910 5-point statement of the Presbyterian General Assembly, also used by

Fundamentalists

1910 First World Missionary Conference meets in Edinburgh.

1910-1915 The Fundamentals, a 12-volume collection of essays by 64 British and

American scholars and preachers, a foundation of Fundamentalism

1911:The Elder Patriarch Abdul Meshiah's telegraphic message on 17 August. Abdulla's stay order becomes invalid

1911:On 30 August Patriarch Abdulla's supporters meet at Aluva

1911:Aug 29 Pius X restored the Vicariate of Kottayam for the Suddhists of the Syro-Malabar Rite, descendants of the immigrants of A.D. 345.

1912:On 13 March Patriarch Abdul Meshiah arrived in Kerala

1912:Parumala Managing Committee Meeting on 3 March recommends Murimattathil Paulose Mar Ivanios for the post of Catholicose Patriarch recognises

1912:On 15 September, the Patriarch with the co-operation of Mar Dionysios and Mar Gregorios consecrated Murimattathil Mar Ivanios as Catholicos at Niranam. The Catholicate was thus established in Malankara.

1912:Mar Abdul Messiah and Mar Dionysius VI and his Episcopal colleagues institute "The Catholicate in Malankara"

1912 V. S. Azariah becomes first Indian Anglican bishop; his efforts in Dornakal inspire the conversion of over 200,000 Malas and Madigas and provoke conflict with Gandhi.

1912-14:I Catholicos Moran Mar Beselios Paulose

1913:The right to the interest accrued out of the 'Vattipanam' claimed by the Patriarch and Metropolitan factions to be decided in the court

1913-1924 James Moffat Bible, 1st one man translation in almost 400 years

1914-1922 Pope Benedict XV

1917 Reported apparition of Mary in Fatima, Portugal, "miracle of the sun"

witnessed by between 70,000 and 100,000 people, considered "worthy of

belief" by the Catholic Church

1917:May 1 The Oriental Congregation is formed by Pope Benedict XV.

1918-19:Fr. Alexious and Fr. P.T. Geevarghese together start at Perunad Bethany the order of Imitation of Christ Congregation's Ashram.

1919 World's Christian Fundamentals Association founded

1922-1939 Pope Pius XI

1923:On 23 June, Vattasseril Mar Dionysios set forth on a Mardintrip- church Peace Talks with the patriarch Stay order made invalid the return trip in the company of Syrian Metropolitan Julius

1923:Mar Julius comes to Malankara as Patriarch's delegate

1923:Dec 21 Establishment of the Syro-Malabar Hierarchy with Ernakulam as the Metropolitan See, and Trichur, Changanacherry and Kottayam as Sufragan Sees.

1923 Bishop Tibertius Roche becomes first Indian head of a Latin Rite diocese (in Tamil Nadu).

1924:The establishment of the Sleebadasa congregation and Eastern Missionary Group

1925:On 30 April, Baselios Geevarghese I anointed as Catholicos

1925 Scopes Trial, caused division among Fundamentalists

1925-28:II Catholicos Moran Mar Beselios Geevarghese I

1927:Konatt Mathan Malpan's efforts at reconciliation

1927 Amy Carmichael founds Dohnavur Fellowship for rescuing child temple prostitutes; becomes friend of Gandhi.

1928:On 16 August, the Malankara Association Managing Committee is entrusted with the task of forming an administrative wing for the Church

1929-64:III Catholicos Moran Mar Beselios Geevarghese II

1929:Baselios Geevarghese II is anointed on 15 February as Catholicos

1930:Fr. C. M. Thomas founds "the Society of the order of the Sacred Transfiguration" in Pathanapuram.

1930:September On 4 September Malankara Syrian Christian Association meets at M.D Seminary, Kottayam. The administrative wing of the Church is formed.

1930:On 20 September, Bethany's Geevarghese Mar Ivanios Bishop Mar Theophilus, Fr. John O.I.C., Bro. Aledxander and Mr. Chacko Kilileth with Catholic Church

1931-32:Patriarch Mar Elias III in Malankara.

1931:March Mar Elias- Mar Dionysios Peace Talks

1931:Lay Trustee E. J. Joseph receives Rs. 16000/-, which is the interest of the 'Vattipanam' for 19 years starting from 1912 to 1931

1932:On 13 February Mar Elias III Bava passes away in Manjanikara and laid to rest there.

1932:June 11 The establishment of the Syro-Malankara Hierarchy by Pope Pius XI. Mar Ivanios becomes Archbishop of Trivandrum, and Mar Theophilus Bishop of Tiruvalla

1932 Reported apparition of Mary in Beauraing, Belgium, considered "worthy of

belief" by the Catholic Church

1933 Reported apparition of Mary in Banneux, Belgium, considered "worthy of

belief" by the Catholic Church

1933:June 1 Puthenpally Seminary is shifted to Aluva.

1933:The establishment of the Eastern Orthodox Syrian Sunday_School Association, Syrian Yuvajana Thoughts and Syrian students conference Silver Jubilee

1934:On 2 June baselios Geevarghese II Catholicos of the East travels to Homez, peace talks.

1934:The Malankara Syrian Christian Association Meet takes place on 26 December at M.D. Seminary. The administrative wing of the Church is recognized. The Catholicos is elected as the Metropolitan of Malankara

1935:Bishop Herbert Pakinholmwalsh conducts 'Peace talks' with the Patriarch in Homez

1936:January the Christushishya Ashram in Thadagam, Coimbatore is established under the leadership of Bishop Herbert Pakinholm walsh.

1936 Edward VIII king of England, acceded and abdicated

1936-1952 George VI king of England

1936 Westminster NT, unofficial Catholic version (not commissioned by the

Hierarchy)

1937:His Holiness Geevarghese II Catholicose of the East and his and 19 August team participate in the 'Faith and order conference' held between 3rd August at Edinburgh

1939-1958 Pope Pius XII

1945-1955 Knox Version, from Vulgate, asked for by English Hierarchy

1946-1952 Revised Standard Version, revision of AV "based on consonantal Hebrew

text" for OT and best available texts for NT, done in response to changes in

English usage

1947:On 2 November Baselios Yeldo whose mortal remains are interred in Kothamangalam and Parumala Mar Gregorios are declared Saints.

1947 Independence of India, accompanied by the Partition of the Indian Empire into India and Pakistan, followed the next year by the forming of independent Burma and Ceylon.

1947 Church of South India is formed, combining formerly Anglican, Congregationalist, Reformed, and Methodist denominations; soon followed by Church of North India (CNI).

1948 Mohandas K. Gandhi is assassinated.

1948:World Council of Churches Meet held in Amsterdam

1949 Basic English Bible, only 1000 words, simple and direct style

1949 Discovery of Qumran (Essenes?) scrolls, aka Dead Sea scrolls (see 68)

1950 July 18 The Portuguese Padroado over the Diocese of Cochin (from 1557 Feb. 4 till 1950 July 18) suppressed and the Diocese of Cochin handed over to native clergy.

1950 July 25 Erection of the diocese of Palai by Pope Pius XII.

1951:On 31 December the headquarters of the Catholicate takes from 'Devalokam'

1951 Mother Teresa (Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu) forms the Catholic Missionaries of Charity in Calcutta.

1952-Present Elizabeth II queen of England

1952:August catholicate College in Pathanamthitta is founded

1952:December World Youth Meet held in Kottayam

1952:Dec 28-31 Jubilee Celebration of St. Thomas and St. Francis Xavier at Ernakulam.

1953:On 14 May Malankara Church accepted the Gregorios calendar

1953:Nov 11 Cardinal Eugene Tisserant, secretary of the Sacred Oriental Congregation, visits the Syrian Catholics of Malabar.

1953:Dec 31 Erection of the diocese of Tellichery by Pope Pius XII.

1954:'St. Paul's Gospel team' was started in Mavelikara

1954:World Council of Churches conference in Evanston.

1956:October Ethiopian King Hailey Selasius' visit to Kerala

1956 Jan 10 Pope John XXIII raised the diocese of Changanacherry into an Archdiocese with Kottayam and Palai as Suffragan Sees.

1956 July 29 Erection of the diocese of Kothamangalam under the Archdiocese of Ernakulam.

1956 Nov.1 The present `Kerala State' is established.

1957 United Church of Christ founded by ecumenical union of Congregationalists and

Evangelical & Reformed, representing Calvinists and Lutherans

1958-1963 Pope John XXIII

1958 J. B. Phillip's NT, uses only commonly spoken language

1958:May The Diamond Jubilee of the Student's movement

1958:September 12 Supreme Court passes Verdict in favour of the Orthodox Church

1958:On 9 December, the Patriarch sends a letter recognizing the Catholicos

1958:On 16 December, the Catholicos sends a letter recognizing the Patriarch. Mutual Reception at the Old Seminary

1958:The Malankara Syrian Christian Association meets at St. Mary's Church, Puthencavu. It is the first Association of the joint Churches

1959:On 2 February, the Church Synod Meets- division into Dioceses

1959: M.G.O.C.S.M. was founded

1959:The interest of the 'Vattipanam' Rs. 21, 840 for the year 1933 to 1959 is received on 1 August

1959:On 2 November St. Paul's Ashram is established in Puthupady.

1959 Statement of Faith (United Church of Christ)

1960:On 17 June the Catholicos sends a suspension order to Paulose Mar Philexinos

1960:On 23 September, the parishes of the divided Kerala were formed

1960s Freedom of Religion Acts bolster Hindu efforts to stop Christian conversion

1961 Third World Council of Churches, held in New Delhi, leads to the formation of the World Council of Churches as a permanent body with headquarters in Geneva.

1961:World Council of Churches Conference takes place on 18 November at New Delhi. The delegates of the Orthodox Church who attended the Conference at New Delhi from 6 December to 21 December meet the catholicos

1961 New English Bible, renders original Basic English Bible for private use

1962 Mar.31 Chanda Mission, outside Kerala, for the Syro-Malabar Church.

1962 July.3 Revised Syro-Malabar Liturgy in force. Holy Mass in Malayalam.

1962:On 7 November the Cyprus President Arch Bishop Makarios meets Catholicos of the East

1962:On 21 December the Armenian Orthodox Catholicos Vascan meets Catholicos of the East.

1962:The Malankara Syrian Christian Association Meeting held on 17 May at St. Mary's Chuch, Niranam Oughen Mar Timotheos is elected as Catholicos- Designate

1962-1965 Second Vatican Council, 21st ecumenical, announced by Pope John XXIII in

1959, produced 16 documents which became official after approval by the

Pope, purpose to renew "ourselves and the flocks committed to us" (Pope

John XXIII)

1963-1978 Pope Paul VI

1964-75:IV Catholicos Moran Mar Beselios Ougen

1964:On 22 May, Moran Mar Baselios Oughen I anointed and elevated as Catholicos of the East.

1965:Oriental Orthodox Churches Congress held from 15 January to 24 January at Adis Abbaba

1965:On 2 February the Catholicos goes to Damascus-Patriarch Yakoob III and Catholicos meet- Meets Metropolitan Sevarios Zakayu at Mussalil- Brings the relics of St. Thomas, the Apostle and place at Devalokam for public homage. A portion of the Sunoro from the St. Mary's Sunaro Church at Homez is received. This is preserved in Cheriyapalli, Kottayam.

1965:On 1 February, the Orthodox Seminary for priests is affiliated to the Serampur University and is raised as First Grade Theological College

1965:The 150th year of the Theological Seminary is celebrated from 26 December to 30 December

1966 RSV Catholic Edition, a joint effort between Catholics and the Church of

England, a big step towards a common Catholic/Protestant Bible

1966 Jerusalem Bible, translation from original languages based on Bible de

Jerusalem, Catholic version

1967:February- Visit to the Church of York Arch Bishop Dr. Donald Cogan

1968:May - M. G. O.C. S.M celebrates Diomond Jubilee

1968:World Council of Churches conference held from 4 July to 20 July at Upsala, Sweeden

1969:The Visit of a delegation from the Russian Orthodox Church

1969 Mar.28 Archbishop Mar Joseph Parecattil of Ernakulam Cardinal.

1969 May All-India Seminar Church In India Today . T.En. Conceived

1970-75:Patriarch Mar Yakoob III's efforts at separation

1970:On 27 June through the Decree No. 203 St. Thomas the Apostle is denied title

1970 Confraternity Version, new Catholic translation from the originals which

began before 1939 as a translation from the Vulgate, but ending up as a new

translation from the Hebrew (OT) and Greek (NT).

1971 New American Standard Bible, updated the ASV using recent Hebrew and

Greek textual discoveries

1972:On 28 January, an unauthorized appointed of a representative of the Patriarch is made through a decree. (According to the decree No. 36/72 the Patriarch appoints Abhudi Mar Timotheos as the representative of the Patriarch in Malankara. As he was not acceptable in Malankara, the central Government intervened and sent him back from India)

1972:On 3 July to commemorate the 19th Sathapdi death annieversary of St. Thomas the Apostle, the Indian Government released a postel stamp depicting the picture of the Persian Cross

1972:On 10 October, the 19th Sathapdi meeting of St. Thomas the Apostle is held in St. Mary's Church, Niranam. The 'Mahasammelanam' was held on 31 December at Kottayam

1972 :Bhilai St. Thomas Mission Center is established

1973 April 7 T.En. Published by Carrdinal Parecattil at the Cardinal House Ernakulam. H.H. Moran Mar Augen I Catholicos presided. Also on the dais were Mar Phelexinos, Mar Mankuzhikkary, Mar Pawathil, ...

1973 July 3 The Governor of Kerala and the Cardinal release the St. Thomas Stamp and the T.En.II for sale

1974:On 3 August, Malankara Church Synod withdraws the recognition accorded to Patriarch Yakoob

1975:The supporters of the Patriarch observed the Patriarch's Day on 23 February at Ernakulam

1975:The Patriarch convenes the "Universal Syrian Orthodox Sabha Synod" from 16 June to 20 June at Damascus. The Catholicos and other Metropolitans are to the Syrian Orthodox Church opponents of the Scriptures and hence are churches

1975:On 7 September, the Patriarch Yakoob III consecrated Paulose Mar Philexinos at Damascus as the Eastern ' Maphriyana'. The supporters of the Patriarch formed the Malankara Jacobite Syrian Church under his leadership.

1975:On 24 September His Holiness Baselios oughen abdicated the position of Catholicos and Malankara Metropolitan in favour his successor.

1975:He retired on 11 October from the post of the Caholicos

1975:The Holy Synod on 27 October at the Old Seminary anointed Mathews Mar Athanasios as the Catholicos

1975:On 8 December, His Holiness Baselios Oughen Catholicos of the East passes away and is laid to rest in Devalokam Chapel

1975-91:V Catholicos Moran Mar Beselios Marthoma Mathews I

1976:The Northern dioceses accord a reception on 15 February at Ernakulam to the Catholicos

1976:On 27 March, three dioceses outside Kerala were formed, namely, Mumbai, Madras and Delhi.

1976:His Holiness the Catholicos of the East, Mathews Mar Coorlilos, Dr. Paulose Mar Gregorios and Joseph Mar Pakkomios visited the Russian Orthodox Church and the Armenian Orthodox Church on 21 September

1976:A delegation from the Orthodox Church visited the Rumanian and Bulgarian Orthodox Churches

1976- 90:The 1st phase of the Malankara Sabha Case

1976:On 9th July, the Government appointed a Special Court to look into suits of the church

1977:In January, the Russian Orthodox Patriarch Pimente visits Malankara Church

1977 Indian Supreme Court defines evangelist's work as a threat to the "freedom of conscience" guaranteed to all citizens of India.


1978: Mathews Mar Coorilos submits a memorandum to the Chief Minister on 1 February seeking the protection of the Metropolitans, priests and institutions of the Church

1978 Pope John Paul I

1978 New International Version, used eclectic Greek text, Massoretic Hebrew

text, and current English style

1978-? Pope John Paul II, reaffirmed conservative moral traditions (The Splendor of

Truth) and the forbidding of women in the priesthood

1979-1982? New King James Bible, complete revision of 1611 AV, updates archaisms

while retaining style

1979:On 7 July, Malankara Orthodox sabha forms the Child Welfare Board

1979:On 11 July, His Holiness the Catholicos of the east visits the United States of America, Canada and England

1979:The Mission Training Center at Mavelikara starts a three year Mission Training Course on 15 September

1979:On 1 June the Bombay, Delhi and Madras dioceses are divided into five as 1. America 2. Bombay 3. Calcutta 4. Delhi5. Madras. Kollam diocese was divided to form the Thiruvananthapuram diocese.

1979:The handing over of the keys to the 66 houses constructed by the Malankara Orthodox Church as part of the relief work in the devastated areas of Andra on 15 October

1980:A committeee formed in Old Seminary, Kottayam for graduate and postgraduate studies in Theology (F.F R.R.C)

1980:Patriarch Mar Ignatios Yakoob III passes away on 26 June

1980:Patriarch Mar Ignatios Saka I is anointed on 14 September

1981-? Reported apparitions of Mary in Medjugorje, Yugoslavia, not yet

approved/disapproved by the Catholic Church

1982:Kottayam Diocese is divided into three on 8 January 1. Kottayam Central 2. Kottayam 3. Idukki

1982:The dasthation celebration of the Catholicate held from 5 to 15 September in Bombay. Guest- Patriarch Elia II (Georgia Orhodox Church) in Ernakulam. Guest- Metropolitan Emilianos (Constantinople) Kottayam, Guest. Patriarch Elia II President of India His Excellancy Zail Singh.

1983:On 24 July the W.C.C Assemblyis held in Vancouver

1983:Dr. Paulose Mar Gregorios becomes President of All World Chuch of Churches on 9 August

1983:From 26 May to 4 June, His Holiness the Catholicos of the East visits the parishes in the Middle East. Consecrates the St. George Orthodox Church at Abudhabi. The Catholicos also visits Pope John Paul II at Vatican.

1983:A stone Cross is discovered near Nilackal on 23 March

1983:The M.G. O.C. S.M Platinum Jubilee is celebrated from 25 December to 31 December at Old Seminary, Kottayam

1984:St. Thomas Ecumenical Center is established on 8 April at Nilackal

1984:His Holiness the Catholicos of the East inaugurates on 28 July Divyabodhanam, which is spiritual Studies Project, instituted in the Orthodox Seminary for lay people.

1984 :On 25 August Vice President R. Venkataraman inaugurates the Delhi Orthodox Centre

1985:On 10 March, the Thumpamon, Niranam and Kollam dioceses are divided to form the Chengannur diocese.

1985:On 14 April Kunnamkulam dioceses is formed

1985:The Sultan Battery diocese was formed on 23 October

1985:The 8th Assembly of Christian Conference of Asia was held in June at Seoul, South Korea

1985:On 8 December, Geevarghese Mar Osthathios laid the foundation stone for the Mar Gregorios Balagram at Yechram.

1986:Feb. 1-10 Visit of Pope John Paul II to India.

1986:Feb. 8 Fr. Chavara Kuriakose Elias and Sr. Alphonsa are proclaimed blessed by Pope John Paul II.

1986:The Catholicos of the East meets Pope John Paul II on 8 February at Mar Elia Cathedral,Kottayam

1989:The Rumanian Patriarch Theoctitus inaugurated the Jubilee celebrations of the death anniversary of Catholicos Geevarghese II on 8 January at M.D. Seminary, Kottayam

1989:The Catholicos- Designate inaugurates on 4 and 5 February the Bombay Orthodox Church Center

1889:On 20 August the Catholicos of the East inaugurates the St. Thomas Karunya Guidance Center at Thiruvananthapuram

1990:The Joint declaration of the general understanding arrived at by the Commission for Orthodox- Catholic Dialogue announced on 3 June in Vatican and in Kottayam

1990:On 9 February, the Parumala auditorium is inaugurated

1990:The Kerala High Court Passes the Verdict on the Church Case.

1991:On April, due to ill health the Catholicos relinquishes his post. Mathews Mar Coorilos assumes responsibilities as Malankara Metropolitan

1991:On 29 April, the formal anointing of the Catholicos and Malankara Metropolitan- anointed Mathews Mar Corilos as Baselios Mar Thoma Mathews II at Parumala Seminary

1991-:VI Catholicos Moran Mar Beselios Marthoma Mathews II

1992 Dec.16 Pope John Paul II raises the Syro-Malabar Church to a Major Archiepiscopal Sui Juris Church with the title of Ernakulam - Angamaly Quae Majori. His Em. Cardinal Paidyara first Major Archbp.; Archbp. Abraham Kattumana Pontifical Delegate.

1993 May. 20-25 The first synod of the Syro-Malabar Church.

1993:September World Parliament of Religions Conference at Chicago

1994 Declaration of cooperation between Evangelicals and Catholics

1995:Orthodox Theological Seminary established in Bhilai

1995:On 9 April, His Holiness Baselios Mar Thoma Mathews II the Catholicos of the East participates in the consecration of Armenian Supreme Catholicos At Echmiodos

1995 May Trichur elevated to an Archbishopric.

1995:The Supreme Court Passes the verdict on the Church case on 20 June

1996:On 3 March St. Paul's Balagram is founded in Ittarsi in Madhya Pradesh

1996:June the Baselios Mathes I Memorial Hospital and St. Paul's Tribal Balagram ware inaugurated in Gobarnampur village of Kalahandi District in Orissa

1996 Mar Geevarghese (Varkey) Vithayathil (Major Archiepiscopal) Apostolic Administrator.

1997 :From 5 to 10 June, talks on Church Unity among Oriental Orthodox Church and Reform Churches held at Sophia Centre Kottayam.

1997 August 1 Sviatoslav Richter, one of the world's greatest pianists, dies at his home near Moscow, aged 82. Born in Zhitomir, Ukraine, Richter gave his first concert in 1934, and gradually became the Soviet Union's leading pianist. He won the Stalin Prize in 1949, but remained a mystery figure in the West until 1960, when he performed a solo concert in Chicago, U.S.A. Kenya faces an economic crisis as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) suspends a 208-million-dollar loan to the country. The IMF says it made the decision because President Daniel arap Moi's government has failed to tackle corruption in public services and reform the energy sector.

1997 August 2 Stuart Diver, a 27-year-old Australian skiing instructor, is found alive after surviving the landslide which buried him and 19 others at the resort of Thredbo, in the Snowy Mountains, New South Wales, Australia. Diver spent 65 hours trapped under 10.5 metres of rubble in sub-zero temperatures after the landslide on July 30. His good physical fitness helped him survive.

1997 August 3 Ash, super-heated gas, and molten rock from Montserrat's Soufriere Hills Volcano flows into Plymouth, destroying wooden houses in the historic centre of the capital of the Caribbean island. The June 25 eruption of the volcano, which sprang to life in 1995 after being inactive for more than 400 years, killed at least 10 people who had remained in the area that had been ordered to be evacuated. Montserrat is a United Kingdom (UK) dependency. The UK has pledged 41 million pounds sterling in aid. United States athlete Maurice Greene wins the 100-metres final during the World Track and Field Championships in Athens, Greece. The 22-year-old, known as the 'Kansas Cannonball', ran the race in 9.86 seconds, 0.05 seconds ahead of the defending world champion, Donovan Bailey.

1997 August 4 Jeanne Calment, believed to be the oldest person in the world, dies in Arles in the south of France, at the age of 122 years, five months, and two weeks. She was born on February 21, 1875, and outlived her husband by 55 years, her only daughter by 63 years, and her grandson by 34 years. Calment's death leaves Christian Mortensen, a Danish-born American, as the world's oldest person. Mortensen will be 115 on August 16. Kofi Annan, secretary-general of the United Nations (UN), approves an Iraqi plan to exchange oil exports for imports of food and medicine. Iraq was barred from exporting oil under UN sanctions imposed in 1990 after Iraq invaded Kuwait.

1997 August 5 A Korean Air Lines jumbo jet en route to Guam from Seoul, South Korea, crashes in the jungle on the U.S. held Pacific island, killing all but 29 of the 254 passengers and crew members aboard the 747-300. In the Malaysian capital, Kuala Lumpur, Dato Ting Chew Peh, the housing and local government minister, announces that anyone convicted of littering will be made to sweep the streets while wearing a T-shirt bearing the words: 'I am a litterbug.' It is hoped that such public shaming will deter other offenders.

1997 August 6 The Sri Lankan cricket team sets a new world record for the highest score in a Test-match innings. At the Premadasa stadium in the capital, Colombo, Sri Lanka scores 952 for 6 against India. The previous record was England's 903 for 7 against Australia at The Oval, London, in 1938. Three people die in mountain accidents in Switzerland and Italy. French rescue teams give up hope for three other climbers who went missing on Mont Blanc on August 3. It is estimated that at least 43 people were killed in Alpine accidents in the past month.

1997 August 7 A Soyuz spaceship, launched on August 5, arrives at the damaged Russian space station Mir carrying a relief crew of two. Because radio transmission between the space station and the craft failed, the Soyuz craft was manoeuvred into docking position manually by three Mir astronauts. During 1997, the space station has experienced a number of system malfunctions, including an earlier docking failure that resulted in a crash that punched a hole in Mir.

1997 August 8 Carol Bellamy, executive director of Unicef, the United Nations Children's Fund, warns that about 80,000 North Korean children are suffering from malnutrition. North Korea, with a population 24 million people, is currently facing a number of crises, including famine and drought. Russians are drinking themselves to death at a faster rate than any other nation. Evidence published in 'The Lancet', a British medical journal, shows that life expectancy for Russian men has fallen by 6.2 years and for women by 3.4 years between 1990 and 1994. The major reason is widespread drinking of alcohol.

1997 August 9 After the Apprentice Boys' march through the city, rioters clash with police in Londonderry, Northern Ireland. The police are attacked when they try to separate loyalists and nationalists. The annual march celebrates the anniversary of the Protestant relief of Londonderry, besieged by the Catholic ex-king James II, in 1689. Seven activists belonging to Greenpeace, the environmental group, chain themselves to the 'Stena Dee', an oil rig hired by BP, in an attempt to stop production at a new oil field. The action happens in the Atlantic Ocean, about 112 kilometres west of the Shetland Islands, Scotland. The 'Stena Dee', which has been halted, was heading for the Foinaven oil field.

1997 August 10 Australia wins the Ashes cricket trophy for a record-breaking fifth time in succession. The Australian team beat England by 264 runs at Trent Bridge, Nottinghamshire, England. There are five matches in the series, and Australia has won three of the four matches played. A Dutch biologist working in the Brazilian rainforest claims to have discovered a new species of monkey. Marc Van Roosmalen of the National Institute for Amazon Research in Manaus, Brazil, says that the very small monkey was found in the upper reaches of the Madeira River and is related to the marmoset family. He has named it the black-capped dwarf marmoset.

1997 August 11 In Pretoria, South Africa, the two men who in 1993 murdered Chris Hani, leader of the South African Communist Party, ask the Truth and Reconciliation Commission for amnesty. Janusz Walus, aged 42, and Clive Derby-Lewis, aged 61, claim they acted alone, but lawyers for the Hani family believe they were part of a larger conspiracy. Amnesty is only given in cases where full disclosure is made. Hani's murder happened at a crucial moment in South Africa's transition from apartheid to democracy and almost sabotaged peace talks. Crops are badly damaged by an overnight hailstorm in central Greece. The Government announces that an estimated 25,000 acres of tobacco, cotton, and tomato crops were destroyed in the Larissa region. Some reports claim the hailstones were as large as lemons.

1997 August 12 As many as 600 are killed and thousands more are forced from their homes in northwestern Burundi during renewed clashes between Hutu rebels and the Tutsi-dominated Burundian army. Since 1993, when the latest round of fighting between Hutu guerrillas and army soldiers began, more than 150,000 Burundians have died. The current conflict is the latest in a series of rebellions by the Hutu, a majority in Burundi, against the Tutsi, who have long dominated the nation's government and army. A wealthy film producer and music magnate is shot dead in Bombay, India. Police claim that Gulshan Kumar, who produced several Hindi films, was killed by organized crime groups, who often try to extort money from successful people in the entertainment industry.

1997 August 13 Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu refuses an appeal from King Hussein of Jordan to lift sanctions against the Palestinian territories. The sanctions were imposed after bombs killed 15 people in Jerusalem on July 30. Netanyahu's refusal to end sanctions, which cost the Palestinian economy about 9.6 million U.S. dollars every day, is seen as a set back for the United States envoy, Dennis Ross, who is visiting the region to restart the peace process between Israel and the Palestinians. More than 300 British tourists are moved from a hotel in the Dominican Republic after three women who stayed there in July were confirmed as having typhoid. The tour operator, Thomson Holidays, is moving the holiday-makers from the Hotel Coral Costa Caribe in Juan Dolio as a precaution after the Communicable Diseases Surveillance Centre in London confirmed that three women who stayed at the hotel from July 7 to 14 had typhoid.

1997 AUGUST 14 Palaeoanthropologist Lee Berger announces at a news conference at the National Geographic Society headquarters in Washington, D.C., U.S.A., that he and colleagues at the University of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa, have found the earliest fossilized footprints of an anatomically modern human being. Discovered on the edge of Langebaan Lagoon north of Cape Town, the prints are believed to have been made approximately 117,000 years ago. Older footprints, such as 3.7 million-year-old Laetoli prints discovered by Mary Leakey, were made by hominid ancestors of the modern human.

1997 August 15 At midnight of 14/15 August, India celebrates 50 years of independence. After veterans of the struggle for independence from the United Kingdom, which culminated in the creation of modern India and Pakistan in 1947, attend an evening parade in India's capital, New Delhi, a recording of Jawaharlal Nehru's speech announcing independence is played in parliament. In Pakistan, celebrations started 24 hours earlier with a late-night session of parliament in Islamabad and an afternoon ceremony at the tomb of Muhammad Ali Jinnah in Karachi. Georgian President Eduard Shevardnadze makes a vow of peace with separatist leader Vladislav Ardzinba in the Georgian capital, Tbilisi. The two leaders are meeting to resolve the conflict, which began on August 14 1992, following the declaration of independence of Abkhazia. The conflict between Georgia and Abkhazia has cost about 10,000 lives. At least four people die when a pleasure boat capsizes after being battered by high winds in Manila Bay, in the Philippines. The 'King George', carrying 44 Hong Kong tourists, was 11 kilometres from port when strong winds and high waves caused panic among the holiday-makers. The captain claims they all rushed to one side of the boat, causing it to capsize.

1997 August 16 Germany's supreme court upholds a ban on demonstrations to commemorate the anniversary of the death of Rudolf Hess, who died in Spandau prison in Berlin on August 17, 1987. Police detain about 400 right-wingers to prevent them demonstrating their neo-Nazi views. Hess was Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler's deputy until he was captured in 1941 after parachuting into Scotland on a failed secret mission to secure a truce between Germany and the United Kingdom during World War II. Stanley Ho, the tycoon who runs the casinos in the Portuguese territory of Macao, in China, claims that gang warfare in the Macao gambling industry will soon be over. Gambling, the biggest source of revenue in Macao, attracts many players from Hong Kong, where most forms of betting are illegal. At least 16 people were murdered recently in gang violence.

1997 August 17 Arsonists burn down dozens of houses and about 100 kiosks in Mombasa, Kenya. It is the latest disturbance in five days of violence in the area. No political group has admitted responsibility for the incidents. President Daniel arap Moi and opposition groups have blamed each other for fomenting civil unrest. The Burmese government announces that three pro-democracy supporters, all related to opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi, have each been sentenced to 10 years in prison. Suu Kyi's cousin, Cho Aung Than, his sister Nge Ma Ma Than, and her husband, Myint Swe, were found guilty of breaking national security laws and sentenced by a court in the capital Rangoon. A group of oil workers, kidnapped by Peruvian rebels on August 15, are released. The 29 workers, employed by the Compania General de Geofiscia in the jungle town of Satipo, Peru, are thought to have been kidnapped by guerrillas belonging to the Maoist Shining Path movement.

1997 August 18 The world's first Mind Sports Olympiad opens in London. Lasting seven days, the event comprises more than 30 games which test mental skill, including gin rummy, bridge, backgammon, chess, draughts, mah-jongg, Scrabble, crossword puzzles, jigsaws, and memory tests. The Olympiad is divided into card games, board games, and mental skill games. Players from more than 30 countries include the Mongolian draughts team, the Kenyan Scrabble team, and top bridge player Zia Mahmood.

1997AUGUST 19 Government troops destroy a rebel warlord's army in Tajikistan. Colonel Makhmud Khudoyberdyev and his mutinous army unit are ousted from their stronghold near the Afghan border. The incident highlights the fragility of the peace between President Imomali Rakhmonov and the Islamic opposition in Tajikistan. A masterpiece of baroque art, the Fountain of the Four Rivers in Rome's Piazza Navona, is damaged when an Italian man goes swimming in the fountain. Sebastiano Intili breaks the statue, made by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, when he climbs onto the marble tail of one of its dolphins. He is arrested for vandalism. The French company Elf Aquitaine announces the discovery of one of the biggest oil fields in Africa. Experts believe that the Dalia well, off the coast of Angola, about 200 kilometres northwest of the capital Luanda, contains up to 3.5 billion barrels of oil.

1997 August 20 Hundreds of United Nations troops surround police stations in Banja Luka, in north Bosnia, to support the Bosnian Serb President Biljana Plavsic's attempt to assert her authority over the ex-president and indicted war criminal Radovan Karadzic. After the police stations are searched, about 2,500 illegal firearms are confiscated. This is seen as a blow to Karadzic's supporters in Bosnia. Defying the demands of Israel and United States to suppress terrorist tactics of Islamic extremists, Palestinian leader Yasir Arafat meets openly and physically embraces leaders of Hamas and other militant Islamic groups. He warns Israel that Palestinians are on the brink of resuming open revolt against what they believe is Israeli occupation. The last Palestinian uprising, which ended in 1994, lasted seven years.

1997 August 21 The Pope visits Paris and is welcomed by about 500,000 young people at a world youth festival. A huge crowd at the Eiffel Tower cheers his speech, which called the festival a 'vast gathering of hope'. However, worries about the decline of Catholicism in France are exemplified by estimates that less than one third of the crowd is French. Researchers at the University of Pittsburgh, U.S.A., publish findings which suggest that people who smoke cigarettes for more than 25 years may have suffered lung cell damage that cannot be cured by stopping smoking. The study, published in the 'Journal of Respiratory Medicine', found that people who smoked at least 20 cigarettes a day for 25 years had significantly more of a protein called GRP, which spurs cells to divide and makes the lungs more susceptible to cancer.

1997 August 22 South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission serves a subpoena on Winnie Mandela, former wife of President Nelson Mandela, to testify about her alleged involvement in at least four murders, including that of the teenage anti-apartheid activist Stompie Seipei. Genetic tests confirm that the dwarf Truong Son muntjac deer, which lives in the remote Vu Quang forest of Vietnam, is a previously unknown species. Evidence of the muntjac, which weighs about 15 kilograms and lives at altitudes between 500 and 1,000 metres, was first collected in April by the World Wide Fund for Nature, Danang University, and the Vietnamese Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development.

1997 August 23 Iranian President Mohammed Khatami, the first moderate to hold office since the 1979 Islamic revolution, appoints a woman, Massumeh Ebtekar, to be vice president in charge of environmental protection, a cabinet position. Sir Eric Gairy, prime minister of Grenada from 1974 to 1979, dies aged 75. Born into a peasant family, Gairy founded the Grenada Manual and Metal Workers Union in 1950 and then set up the Grenada United Labour Party. After being elected premier in 1967, he became Grenada's first prime minister after independence from the United Kingdom. Ousted in a coup in 1979, Gairy returned to Grenada after the United States invaded the island in 1983, but never held power again.

1997 August 24 A military court in Tel Aviv, the capital of Israel, decides that an Israeli soldier was mentally disturbed when he fired 15 times at Palestinian shoppers in the West Bank city of Hebron on January 1, 1997. Noam Friedman, aged 22, wounded four people in the incident and is confined to a mental hospital. Indian and Pakistan troops fire at each other on the border between the two countries in Kashmir. At least five people are killed and 10 wounded. Both sides accuse the other of unprovoked firing and of trying to sabotage the third round of peace talks between the two countries, which are scheduled for September.

1997 August 25 A report published in Ireland by the tribunal of inquiry into payments by businessmen to politicians criticises Charles Haughey, the former prime minister, for 'unacceptable' behaviour. Haughey admits receiving gifts of more than one million Irish pounds from businessman Ben Dunne, head of Dunnes Stores. Egon Krenz, last leader of communist East Germany, is jailed for six and a half years for manslaughter. Krenz, aged 60, was a leading member of the East German government since 1983 and in charge of national security. He was responsible for the policy which encouraged border guards to shoot anyone trying to cross the Berlin Wall. His conviction ends the most important political trial in Germany since its reunification in 1990.

1997 August 26 Zionism celebrates its centenary. Israeli politicians and Jewish intellectuals attend a congress in Basle, Switzerland, the same city where, in 1897, 196 Jewish intellectuals, led by Theodor Herzl, started the movement for a Jewish state. The Zionist movement achieved success in 1948 when Israel was founded. The former South African president, F. W. de Klerk, aged 61, retires from politics. As head of the government in 1990, de Klerk was responsible for ending apartheid and bringing in Black majority rule. In 1993, he shared the Nobel Peace Prize with Nelson Mandela, the current South African president.

1997 August 27 The United Kingdom's foreign minister, Robin Cook, begins a six-month review of the country's Dependent Territories. The dependencies are Anguilla, Bermuda, British Antarctic Territory, British Indian Ocean Territory, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Montserrat, Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena and Turks and Caicos Islands. Some commentators believe the review may lead to the offer of British citizenship to people living in the dependencies. North Korea cancels talks on missile proliferation with the U.S.A. because the Washington government has given political asylum to a high-ranking defector. Chang Sung-gil, the Korean ambassador to Egypt, defected to the U.S.A. on August 26. The talks were due to discuss curbs on North Korean missile sales abroad and its build-up of weapons at home.

1997 August 28 The Security Council of the United Nations votes unanimously to impose sanctions on Unita, Angola's rebel movement. The measures will come into effect in September if Unita, led by Jonas Savimbi, does not comply with the conditions of the 1994 Lusaka peace accord, which include the demobilisation of its army. The accord ended 30 years of civil war in Angola. An 84-year-old man becomes the oldest person to walk on the wing of a flying aeroplane. Leslie 'Dizzy' Seales spends 20 minutes standing on top of a training aeroplane at Shoreham, West Sussex, England, flying at the height of 250 metres. Seales is a former World War II Royal Air Force gunner.

1997 August 29 Hooded attackers massacre at least 300 villagers in Algeria in the worst atrocity since the Islamic insurgency began five years ago. The attack takes place at Rais, a farming village just south of the capital Algiers. About 60,000 people have died since 1992, when the military-backed government cancelled a parliamentary election because it seemed that Islamic militants would win it.

1997 August 30 The United Kingdom government wins a high court order preventing a former security service officer from making revelations about undercover operations in the national press. The court restrains David Shayler, a 31-year-old former intelligence officer with the security service MI5, from making any further disclosures. His claim on August 24 that MI5 tapped the telephones of Labour Party politicians in the 1970's and 1980's caused a political scandal because these politicians are now senior figures in the government.

1997 August 31 Diana, Princess of Wales, dies after a high-speed car crash in a tunnel near the Pont d'Alma next to the Seine River in Paris. It happens while Diana and her companion, Dodi Al Fayed, are returning from the Ritz Hotel to the house in western Paris where they were staying. The car was being followed by press photographers. Although she survives the immediate crash, Diana dies at La Pitie-Salpetriere hospital at about 4am. Al Fayed and the car's chauffeur, Henri Paul, also die in the crash; Diana's bodyguard, Trevor Rees-Jones, survives. Born in 1961, Diana married Prince Charles, heir to the United Kingdom throne, in 1981. The royal couple had two sons, William Arthur Philip Louis (born 1982) and Henry Charles Albert David (born 1984), but divorced in 1996. Diana was not only a fashionable royal celebrity, but also patron of charities which raised public awareness of AIDS, leprosy, homelessness, and the victims of landmines. In 1995, she received a Humanitarian of the Year award from Dr Henry Kissinger, the former U.S. secretary of state. An Egyptian state security court sentences an Israeli Arab to 15 years hard labour for spying on Egypt. Azam Azam, who belongs to the Druze sect, is convicted of economic espionage at the textiles business in which he worked. The case marks a new low in international relations between Egypt and Israel.

1997 September 1 In Moscow, Russian President Boris Yeltsin, aged 66, announces that he will not run for re-election when his second term of office ends in 2000. Under the new constitution, adopted in 1993, the president is limited to two terms. Arkady Gukasian is elected president of the Nagorno-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan. He rejects the latest international peace plan which attempts to reconcile the Azerbaijan government in Baku with the mainly Armenian population of Nagorno-Karabakh. Since 1994, there has been a cease-fire between the two sides. George Foulkes, the United Kingdom international development minister, arrives in Montserrat with a promise of a new start in rebuilding the island, which has been devastated by volcanic eruptions. Foulkes visits a shelter where some of the island's 2,000 homeless people live and reiterates the UK's commitment to helping rebuild the country's safe zone, which now occupies a third of Montserrat's 102 square kilometres.

1997 September 2 Russian space officials formally blame Commander Vasily Tsibliyev and Flight Engineer Alexander Lazutkin for the collision which damaged the 'Mir' space station on June 25. Both astronauts returned to Earth from the space station on August 14. A leading Belgian criminal investigator resigns after a parliamentary inquiry criticises his role in a failed search for missing children last year. Christian de Vroom, the head of Belgium's Judicial Police, is the first official to resign after the authorities lost valuable time in apprehending Marc Dutroux, who is accused of abusing and murdering several children.

1997 September 3 Comoran government troops invade the island of Anjouan, which declared its independence from the Comoros Islands on August 3. President Mohamed Taki sends in about 300 soldiers to re-establish his authority. Since 1975, when three of the four main islands declared independence from France, opposition leaders have wanted a return to French rule, arguing that the country's political instability has brought poverty to its 676,000 inhabitants. The Soros Foundation, a network of organizations which aims to promote an 'open society', announces that it is withdrawing from Belarus because of harassment of its employees. In March 1997, its local executive, Peter Byrne, was barred by the Belarus government from entering the country. The Foundation is accused of helping the opposition, which is critical of President Alexander Lukashenko's authoritarian style of rule.

1997 September 4 A triple suicide bombing in the crowded Ben-Yehuda pedestrian precinct of Jerusalem, Israel, kills seven people and injures more than 190 others. Responsibility for the attack is claimed by Hamas, the militant Islamic fundamentalist movement. Hans Eysenck, the psychologist, dies aged 81. Born in Berlin, he left Germany after the Nazis came to power, and became director of the Psychological Department at the Maudsley Hospital in London in 1946, where he pioneered clinical psychology in the UK. His many popular psychology books include 'Race, Intelligence and Education' (1971) and 'Mindwatching: Why We Behave the Way We Do' (1981). An Australian scientist claims that a quarter of the sea ice around Antarctica has disappeared during this century. Bill de la Mare of the Australian Antarctic Division in Hobart, Tasmania, says his findings, published in 'Nature' magazine, show that the most dramatic shrinkage was from the late 1950's to the early 1980's. About 5.65 million square kilometres of ice cover has melted, mainly because of global warming.

1997 September 5 Mother Teresa, known as the 'saint of the gutters', dies in Calcutta, India, at the age of 87. Born Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu in Skopje, Macedonia, she took the name Teresa from France's Saint Therese of Lisieux when she became a Roman Catholic nun. In 1950, Mother Teresa set up a religious order, called the Missionaries of Charity, to care for the poor in Calcutta. In 1979, she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for her work. Sir Georg Solti, the conductor, dies aged 84. Born in Hungary, he worked in Germany after World War II, moving to London in 1961 as Music Director at the Covent Garden Opera (now the Royal Opera). In 1971, he was made a knight. During the 1970's, Solti was chief conductor of several of the world's best orchestras. He was particularly praised for his recordings of music by Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss. Athens, capital of Greece, is named as the venue for the 2004 Olympic Games. In a secret ballot held in Lausanne, Switzerland, the International Olympic Committee gives Athens 66 votes and Rome 41.

1997 September 6 Diana, Princess of Wales, is buried at Althorp Park, Northamptonshire, England, after a memorial service in Westminster Abbey, London. Huge crowds line the route of the funeral procession to the abbey as Diana's coffin is followed by her sons, Prince William and Prince Harry, her former husband Prince Charles, her brother Earl Spencer, the Duke of Edinburgh, and 500 representatives of charities of which she was a patron. At the funeral service, which is watched by a worldwide television audience estimated at more than a billion, Earl Spencer reads the funeral address and pop singer Elton John sings 'Candle in the Wind, 1997'. During the funeral ceremonies, there are many spontaneous expressions of grief around the world. In the United Kingdom, most sports venues, businesses, and shops are closed.

1997 September 7 An Australian wins a Grand Slam tennis title for the first time in 10 years. At Flushing Meadow, New York, Australia's Pat Rafter beats the United Kingdom's Greg Rusedski to win the men's United States Open tennis championship. The score is 6-3, 6-2, 4-6, 7-5. Thousands of mourners visit St Thomas's church in Calcutta, India, to see Mother Teresa's embalmed body. At the same time, the Vatican receives numerous requests from both lay and clerical members to declare her a saint as soon as possible. Mother Teresa died on September 5. The Zairian dictator Mobutu Sese Seko dies at the age of 66 while in exile in Morocco, four months after being deposed. After coming to power in a coup in 1965, Mobutu ruled Zaire for 32 years, amassing a personal fortune which is estimated to be large enough to pay off the country's national debt.

1997 September 8 Hundreds of Haitians drown as an overloaded ferry boat sinks near the country's west coast. The 'Fierte Gonavienne' is crossing from Montrouis on the mainland to the island of La Gonave, when it capsizes. In the Haitian capital, Port-au-Prince, a United Nations official says that the death toll could be as high as 500. The prime minister of Japan, Ryutaro Hashimoto, is unanimously reelected as leader of the country's ruling Liberal Democratic Party. He has been successful in improving relations between Japan and Russia, North Korea, and China.

1997 September 9 In Belfast, Northern Ireland, Sinn Fein signs a commitment to non-violence as part of the peace process. The party formally subscribes to the six principles, formulated by the chair of the multi-party talks, the former United States senator George Mitchell. These pledge a total disarmament of all paramilitary organizations. The Irish Republican Army, of which Sinn Fein is the political wing, began a cease-fire on July 20. The Chinese Communist Party expels the former Beijing party secretary and hands him over to prosecutors investigating the country's biggest corruption scandal. Chen Xitong, aged 67, resigned from his post as mayor in 1995, after Beijing's vice mayor, Wang Baosen, committed suicide. Party officials believe both men embezzled huge sums of public money. Israeli archaeologists claim to have found the Roman prison where Saint Paul was held for two years. A Latin inscription in the Mediterranean port of Caesarea is new evidence that the ruins of the headquarters of Roman government have survived. According to the 'Acts of the Apostles', Paul was imprisoned here at a date estimated by historians to be about AD60.

1997 September 10 Anwar Ibrahim, Malaysia's deputy prime minister, announces public spending cuts, especially the cancellation of several very large projects. These include the building of a new capital city, called Putrajaya, outside the present capital, Kuala Lumpur, the Bakun Dam in Sarawak, and the Linear City project to construct the world's longest building. The cuts are due to serious problems affecting Malaysia's economy. Archives documenting the death of Russia's last czar are put on display in Moscow, the country's capital, which is celebrating the 850th anniversary of its founding. The exhibition includes rare photographs of Czar Nicholas II and his family, as well as telegrams sent by the Bolsheviks recording their execution in 1918, following the Russian Revolution of 1917.

1997 September 11 In a referendum on the devolution of political power, the people of Scotland vote in favour of a separate Scottish Parliament with tax-varying powers. In answer to two questions on the ballot paper, 74.3 per cent voted for a parliament and 63.5 per cent for it to have tax-varying powers. This means that Scotland will have an assembly for the first time since the Act of Union of 1707. The turnout for the vote is about 60 per cent of the population. Cuba announces the arrest of a former Salvadoran soldier who has confessed to planting four bombs in the capital, Havana, on September 4. A statement issued by the ministry of the interior says that Raul Ernesto Cruz Leon entered Cuba as a tourist on August 29. Describing him as a 'mercenary agent recruited abroad', it claims that the motive for the bombings, which killed an Italian businessman, was financial.

1997 September 12 China's President Jiang Zemin, leader of the world's largest Communist Party, sanctions the sale of 10,000 state-owned firms in widespread reforms announced at the start of the party's 15th Congress. The main theme of the meeting, which represents 58 million party members, is the shift away from state ownership of economic resources to a system of private ownership similar to capitalism. South African President Nelson Mandela unveils a statue of Steve Biko in East London, a city on the east coast of the country. Biko, a Black Consciousness leader and anti-apartheid campaigner, was killed in police custody in Pretoria 20 years ago. He is described by Mandela as 'one of the greatest sons of our nation'.

1997 September 13 Elton John's pop song 'Candle in the Wind, 1997' is an instant hit in the United Kingdom. John sang it as a tribute to Diana, Princess of Wales, at her funeral on September 6. Copies of the song are sold out in shops all over the country within hours of becoming available. An estimated 250,000 compact discs and audio cassettes are sold and a further 1.25 million copies will be on sale next week. The sales are expected to raise at least 10 million pounds sterling for the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund. Two circus-trained performers create a new world record by crossing the River Thames in London on a high wire. Starting from opposite ends of the 2.5-centimetre-thick, 305-metre-long wire, Jade Kindar-Martin, aged 24, and Didier Pasquette, aged 29, meet in the middle, 45 metres above the ground. Then Kindar-Martin climbs over Pasquette and both men complete the crossing. They have been practising the walk for nearly three months.

1997 September 14 Israel announces the partial lifting of its economic blockade of the Palestinian territories in return for counter-terrorist measures to be taken by Yasir Arafat, the Palestinian leader. The easing of restrictions comes three days after the visit to the area of United States secretary of state, Madeleine Albright, who urged Arafat to take tougher action against Hamas, the militant Islamic movement. Survival International, a group campaigning on behalf of indigenous peoples, claims that conservation groups are now as big a threat to local tribes as large corporations. Naming projects in countries including the Philippines, Cameroon, and Surinam the group criticises conservationists for setting up 'eco-tourism' projects and nature parks, which destroy the traditional way of life of indigenous peoples. The World Wide Fund for Nature rejects the criticisms.

1997 September 15 At the Emmy awards, held in Pasadena, California, U.S.A., to celebrate the best television programmes, several celebrities attack press intrusion into their private lives. Following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, there has been widespread revulsion at the activities of 'paparazzi', freelance photographers who sell intimate or candid pictures of celebrities to the popular newspapers. It has been claimed that when the Princess's car crashed on August 31 it was travelling at a dangerously high speed while being pursued by photographers. The former pop singer Dana is the first candidate to stand for the Irish presidency, following the end of Mary Robinson's seven-year term. Dana, now Rosemary Scallon, is 44 years old. She won the Eurovision Song Contest with 'All Kinds of Everything' in 1970. Although Dana fails to get a political party to back her candidacy, she is nominated by several county councils. The other candidates for the presidency will be announced on September 17. SEPTEMBER 16 Pakistan's former prime minister Benazir Bhutto rejects government charges that she and her family were involved in corruption. The statement follows action by Saifur Rehman, Pakistan's chief investigator of corruption, to freeze Bhutto family accounts held in Swiss banks. It is alleged that Bhutto stole millions of pounds sterling during her 1993-1996 government. However, she says, 'We have not got our assets through illegal means.'

1997 September 17 Around 100 countries meeting in Oslo, Norway, endorse a proposed treaty which bans anti-personnel landmines. The U.S.A. rejects the deal, claiming that exceptions must be made to protect U.S. soldiers in Korea. China, Russia, India, and Pakistan have also not signed. However, the treaty is a major symbolic step in the attempt to clear the world of landmines. An information technologist from Hampshire, England, discovers the largest Mersenne prime number. The number, discovered by 38-year-old Gordon Spence, is divisible only by itself and by one. The number is so large that if it was written out it would stretch for 2.25 kilometres and take 224 hours to read out. However, it can be written in the notation devised in the 1600's by French monk Marin Mersenne as two multiplied by an exponent, minus one. In this case, the exponent is 2,976,221. This means that two is multiplied by itself 2,976,221 times and then one is subtracted from the total. Spence is one of 2,000 volunteers using a computer program written by George Woltman to check Mersenne primes, only 36 of which are known to exist. The political parties in Ireland announce their candidates for the presidency. They are all women. Fianna Fail nominates Mary McAleese; Fine Gael nominates Mary Banotti; and the Labour Party, Democratic Left, and Greens back Adi Roche. Rosemary Scallon (Dana) announced her candidacy on September 15.

1997 September 18 Ten people are killed in a bomb attack in Cairo, Egypt. Nine of the victims are German tourists who were in a bus outside the Egyptian Museum. They are attacked by a group thought to be militant Islamic fundamentalists, who aim to frighten tourists away from Egypt, thus cutting revenue to the Government. The attack is a severe blow to the Government's claim that it has brought the Islamic insurrection, which began in 1992 and has cost more than 1,200 lives, under control. A painting of Myra Hindley by Marcus Harvey is attacked and damaged at a contemporary art exhibition at the Royal Academy of Arts in London, England. The portrait of Hindley, who murdered several children in the 1960's, is based on a famous photograph and was made by taking a cast of a child's handprint and using it to create the image. Protesters claim that the painting is offensive to the families of Hindley's victims because it glamorises her. The exhibition, called 'Sensation', features work by young British artists, including Damien Hirst, Jake and Dinos Chapman, Chris Ofili, and Sarah Lucas, from the collection of Charles Saatchi.

1997 September19 Seven people are killed and about 150 more injured in one of the United Kingdom's worst train crashes. The accident happens at 1.15pm when a passenger train and a freight train collide near Southall station in West London. John Prescott, the deputy prime minister, promises a full public enquiry into the causes of the crash. Malaysia declares a state of emergency in Sarawak, on the island of Borneo, as smog pollution from forest fires reaches dangerous levels. Schools, businesses, government offices, and airports are shut. The pollution is caused by thousands of fires which have been lit in Indonesia to clear the forests, but are now burning out of control.

1997 September 20 Henri Paul, who was killed with Diana, Princess of Wales, and Dodi Al Fayed, when the car he was driving crashed in Paris on August 31, is buried in Brittany, France. Paul's burial was delayed for autopsy reports, which found that he had more than the legal limit of alcohol in his blood at the time of the crash. The first opinion poll in the Irish Republic's presidential campaign gives Adi Roche a small lead. She is backed by 38 per cent of those surveyed for the 'Irish Sunday Independent' newspaper. Roche, a charity worker and anti-nuclear campaigner, is backed by the Labour Party, Democratic Left, and Greens.

1997 September 21 The Solidarity movement wins the Polish general elections. Solidarity Electoral Action, an alliance of anti-communist parties led by the Solidarity trade union, wins 252 parliamentary seats and its coalition partner, the Freedom Union, wins 68 seats. The governing Democratic Left Alliance and its coalition partners, the Peasants' Party, wins 222 seats in total. A rally of more than 500,000 people in the Philippines capital of Manila protests against a constitutional amendment that would allow President Fidel Ramos and other government ministers a second term in office. Ramos was elected in May 1992 and his current term ends in June 1998. He says he will not stand for the presidency.

1997 September 22 Malaysia's Kuching airport is closed due to smog from forest fires in Indonesia. Seven other airports in Borneo have also been closed and schools in Sarawak are shut. Air pollution from the fires reaches high levels all over Southeast Asia, including Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, and Singapore. A Japanese cabinet minister resigns after protests that he has a criminal record. Koko Sato, Director General of the Management and Co-ordination Agency, stands down after 12 days in the job because of widespread public opposition. Even members of his own Liberal Party dropped their support. Sato was convicted in 1982 for his part in a 1970's bribery scandal.

1997 September 23 Representatives of the Ulster Unionist Party and the nationalist Sinn Fein party meet face to face for the first time during the start of the Northern Ireland peace process. The meeting, lasting 90 minutes, takes place at Stormont Castle in Belfast. Further meetings are planned for next week. A court in Saudi Arabia sentences one of two British nurses charged with murder to eight years in jail and 500 lashes. Lucille McLauchlan, age 31, is found guilty of being an accessory to the murder of a 55-year-old Australian colleague, Yvonne Gilford, who was killed at the King Fahd medical complex in Dhahran on December 11, 1996. The verdict against McLauchlan's co-defendant, Deborah Parry, age 38, has not yet been announced. Both nurses have lived under the threat of public execution since they were charged with the murder.

1997 September 24 The Islamic Salvation Army, military wing of Algeria's largest Islamic fundamentalist party, the Islamic Salvation Front, calls a cease-fire (to take effect on October 1) two days after the worst atrocity of the five-year civil war. On September 22, at least 200 people were killed and more than 30 others wounded at Bentalha in the Bakali suburbs, south of the capital Algiers. The massacre is widely blamed on the more extremist Armed Islamic Group. Two Australian government ministers resign after allegations that one misused his travel expenses and the other covered up for him. The prime minister, John Howard, tells parliament that an inquiry has been launched into fraud allegations against the transport minister, John Sharp, and the administrative services minister, David Jull. Four government ministers have now resigned over corruption charges.

1997 September 25 A British Royal Air Force fighter pilot breaks the land speed record. Squadron leader Andy Green drove a Thrust SSC car at 1,142.63 kilometres per hour during a run in the Black Rock Desert, Nevada, U.S.A. This is more than 128 kilometres per hour faster than the 1983 record set by his team leader Richard Noble. The United Kingdom blocks two arms contracts with Indonesia. In the first test of Foreign Secretary Robin Cook's ethical export policy, licences for the export of armoured personnel carriers and sniper rifles have been refused by the government. It believes the arms would be used for internal repression, including policing occupied East Timor. Last year, the UK sold arms worth about 438 million pounds sterling to Indonesia.

1997 September 26 An Indonesian aeroplane crashes on the island of Sumatra, killing all 234 passengers and crew. The Airbus A300 B-4, owned by Garuda - the Indonesian state airline - crashes into a jungle-covered ravine four minutes before it is due to land at Polonia airport in Medan, northern Sumatra. The government is investigating whether the crash was caused by the thick smog which has hung over Southeast Asia after weeks of uncontrolled forest fires in Indonesia. Ten people die and art treasures are destroyed when two earthquakes hit central Italy. The epicentre of both tremors is in the Apennine hills, near the border between the regions of Umbria and the Marches. The first measures 5.5 on the Richter scale, the second 5.9. The main damaged art treasures are frescoes by Cimabue and Giotto in the basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi.

1997 September 27 Pop singer Bob Dylan plays at a concert attended by Pope John Paul II in Bologna, Italy. An audience of about 200,000 watches 56-year-old Dylan perform songs, including 'Knockin' on Heaven's Door', before meeting the Pope. In his address to the crowd, the Pope quotes the lyrics of another Dylan song, 'Blowin' in the Wind'. The concert is the highlight of a week-long religious congress. Two cargo ships collide in the Straits of Malacca, between Malaysia and Indonesia. The Indian-registered 'Vikraman' is hit by a supertanker and breaks in two. Twenty-nine crewmen are missing. The cause of the collision is unclear, but a spokesman for the Malaysian Maritime Rescue and Co-ordination Centre blames the thick smog which has hung over Southeast Asia after weeks of uncontrolled forest fires in Indonesia.

1997 September 28 After leading Europe to victory over the Americans in the Ryder Cup golf tournament at Valderrama in Spain, golfer Seve Ballesteros announces his resignation from the team's captaincy. He says he wants to concentrate on his game and play in the 1999 tournament. The final score is 14.5 to 13.5.

1997 September 29 Emma Bonino, the European Commissioner for Humanitarian Affairs, is among 20 Westerners arrested by the Taliban fundamentalist Muslim militia in Afghanistan. Bonino is head of a European Union delegation which is visiting an EU-funded women's hospital in the capital Kabul. The arrests happen when members of the delegation photograph the patients. Taliban policy forbids men to take photographs of women to whom they are not related. After three hours in a police station, all 20 are released. Heavy rainfall and a change in wind direction in Malaysia help to disperse some of the smog pollution that has covered much of Southeast Asia since forest fires in Indonesia burned out of control. The state of emergency in Sarawak, declared on September 19, has been lifted. But the smog haze is not expected to clear completely until the monsoon arrives in November. Roy Lichtenstein, one of the pioneers of pop art, dies aged 73. Born in New York, Lichtenstein was the son of a prosperous estate agent. He became interested in art at high school and, after serving in World War II, painted scenes from 'westerns' in modern art styles. At the age of 38, he began making his large cartoon-style paintings, many of which, such as 'Whaam!' (1963), became icons of the 1960's pop art movement.

1997 September 30 On the anniversary of the introduction of the 1940 anti-Jewish laws, the Roman Catholic church in France apologies for its support of Marshall Petain's nazi-backed Vichy regime during World War II. Olivier de Berranger, bishop of Saint-Denis, makes the statement during a ceremony at the Drancy transit camp, from which thousands of Jews were deported to concentration camps. He says the church repents its failure to denounce the Vichy government's anti-Jewish laws in 1940. About 75,000 Jews were deported from France to nazi death camps during World War II. The United Kingdom government announces that it will relinquish the power to intern suspected terrorists without trial in Northern Ireland. Speaking at the Labour Party annual conference in Brighton, England, Mo Mowlam, the Northern Ireland minister, says that when the Emergency Powers Act is presented for approval to parliament in summer 1998, it will no longer include the power to intern suspects without trial. The emergency anti-terrorist legislation is renewed annually.

1997 October 1 In Washington D.C., the United States Congress votes to ban imported goods made by forced child labour. The legislation is intended to end child slavery around the world and is expected to have an impact on the U.S.A.'s domestic consumption of imported goods such as carpets, shoes, toys, and trinkets. The law is sponsored by an independent congressman, Bernard Sanders of Vermont. The French government enforces a new system of fighting air pollution in Paris by restricting the flow of traffic into the capital. With the exception of emergency vehicles, all vehicles with an even-numbered registration are banned from the city streets and public transport is free of charge. The new measure is a response to dangerously high levels of nitrogen dioxide, which are causing health problems for many Parisians. By the end of the day, pollution levels drop noticeably and the government lifts the ban.

1997 October 2 At a press conference at Nasa's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, U.S.A., space scientists announce the discovery on the planet Mars of a giant chasm which is three times deeper than the Grand Canyon in Arizona, U.S.A. There is also evidence that a Martian ocean larger than the Pacific once existed. The 'Mars Global Surveyor' spacecraft, which began orbiting the planet in September, is being prepared for a 30-month mapping operation. The Palestinian leader Yasir Arafat visits Sheikh Ahmad Yassin, founder of the militant Palestinian group Hamas, in hospital in Amman, the capital of Jordan. He is accompanied by King Hussein of Jordan, who helped secure Yassin's release from an Israeli prison on October 1. Yassin has served eight years of a life sentence for organizing armed attacks on Israel. The reason for the release was officially given as Yassin's ill health, but there is speculation that it is part of an exchange after Jordan frees two alleged Israeli agents.

1997 October 3 A senior Australian politician is admitted to hospital after trying to commit suicide. Nick Sherry, the finance spokesman for the opposition Labor Party, is in a stable condition in a Canberra hospital. Sherry, aged 42, was accused of fraudulently claiming travel expenses. The fraud scandal led to the resignation of two government ministers on September 24, since when another politician and three civil servants have resigned. Alfred Leslie Rowse, the English historian and poet, dies at the age of 93. Born at St. Austell, Cornwall, Rowse went to Oxford University, where he studied history at Christ Church College. Rowse became a fellow of All Souls College and an authority on the history of the Elizabethan Age. His books include 'Tudor Cornwall' (1941), 'The Expansion of Elizabethan England' (1955), and 'William Shakespeare: A Biography' (1963).

1997 October 4 The daughter of King Juan Carlos of Spain marries a Basque sportsman in Barcelona, Spain. The 32-year-old Infanta Cristina and Basque handball player Inaki Urdangarin, 29, celebrate their wedding with a ceremony which is conducted in three languages (Catalan, Spanish and Basque) to symbolise the unity of the country. The most complete skeleton of a Tyrannosaurus Rex ever found is sold for 8.4 million U.S. dollars at a New York auction. The 65-million-year-old dinosaur fossil, nicknamed 'Sue', is sold by Sotheby's auction house to the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, U.S.A. The fossil was discovered on a remote ranch in South Dakota in 1990.

1997 October 5 About one million Christian men attend a weekend event in Washington D.C., U.S.A. The event, which included a rally on October 4, is organized by the Promise Keepers, a body which believes that men should take spiritual leadership in the home and that their wives should submit to them. Many Christian denominations, such as Roman Catholics, Baptists, and Episcopalians, are represented. Promise Keepers was founded by Bill McCartney in 1990. India's Space Research Organization says that the country's most advanced satellite, Insat-2D, has been abandoned in space because of a malfunction. The satellite was turned off on October 1 after a power failure. As a result, television communications were disrupted and financial trading on India's stock exchange was suspended.

1997 October 6 The Nobel Prize for medicine is awarded to the American Stanley Prusiner for his controversial 'prion' theory, which explains several brain disorders, including Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (or 'mad cow disease') and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. The prize, valued at about one million U.S. dollars, is given for discoveries that may one day lead to new treatments for dementia-related brain diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's. Prusiner teaches biochemistry at the University of California, San Francisco, U.S.A. Michael Foale, the British-born astronaut, lands on Earth after spending 145 days in space on the Russian space station 'Mir'. His space shuttle, 'Atlantis', touches down at Cape Canaveral, Florida, U.S.A., where he is greeted by his wife, Rhonda, their two young children, and about 400 well-wishers.

1997 October 7 The United Kingdom's Queen Elizabeth II begins her tour of Pakistan and India by meeting Pakistan's President Farooq Leghari at the Aiwan-a-Sadr palace in Pakistan's capital, Islamabad, and visiting the Shah Faisal mosque. In a speech, she pays tribute to Diana, Princess of Wales, who died on August 31. The Queen's last state visit to the country was in 1961. Ray Burke, the Irish minister for foreign affairs, resigns following allegations of corruption. Burke has admitted taking 30,000 Irish punts in cash in 1989 when a business associate was seeking planning permissions in north Dublin. His resignation takes place at Stormont, Northern Ireland, where peace process talks are in progress.

1997 October 8 Astronomers photograph one of the brightest stars in the Milky Way. The Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer of Nasa's Hubble space telescope is needed to take the picture because the star is hidden behind galactic dust. Named Pistol Star, it is about 25,000 light years away in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius. It is brighter than 10 million suns and releases as much energy in six seconds as the sun loses in one year. Astronomers estimate that it is between one and three million years old and, when originally formed, had a mass of up to 200 times that of the sun's. Two United Kingdom companies announce a new way of sending Internet data which is about 10 times quicker than the fastest existing telephone modem. The electricity company, NORWEB, and the telecommunications company, Nortel, say they have worked out how to send electronic data over the mains power supply at over 1 megabit per second. The new system will be tried out in 2,000 homes in the northwest of England in early 1998.

1997 October 9 Dario Fo, the 71-year-old Italian playwright, is awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. He became famous as a political dramatist during the 1960's, and wrote more than 60 plays. A former comic actor and mimic, Fo's blend of slapstick and satire can be seen in plays such as 'The Comic Mysteries', 'Accidental Death of an Anarchist', and 'Can't Pay? Won't Pay!'. He is the sixth Italian to win the literature prize. At least 120 people die and hundreds are missing as a hurricane hits the Mexican tourist resort of Acapulco and other towns on the country's Pacific coast. Hurricane Pauline, with winds reaching more than 160 kilometres per hour, causes waves up to 10 metres tall. At least 40 centimetres of rain are recorded.

1997 October 10 The Nobel Peace Prize is awarded to two groups which campaign for a ban on landmines. The U.S.A.'s International Campaign to Ban Landmines and the United Kingdom's Mines Advisory Group are joint recipients of the 600,000-pounds-sterling prize. The campaign received a boost in January 1997 when Diana, Princess of Wales, visited a minefield in Angola. Official celebrations in Kenya to mark President Daniel arap Moi's 19 years in power are marred by violence. As Moi addresses a crowd in Freedom Park, in the capital Nairobi, police use tear gas and baton charges to clear demonstrators in the Kamukunji area of the city. The opposition rally, organized by the National Convention Executive Committee, had been banned by the authorities.

1997 October 11 Italian riot police fight with English football fans during the first half of an international match between England and Italy. The game, which is played at the Olympic Stadium in Rome, ends in a goalless draw. The result means that England has gained enough points in its qualifying group to enter the World Cup tournament, which will be held in France in 1998. At a two-day summit of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg, France, European leaders promise to ban human cloning. The ban, which is similar to that already in force in the United Kingdom, will be added to the European Convention on Biomedicine. The convention regulates embryo research, genetic testing, and organ transplants.

1997 October 12 The Malaysian prime minister addresses a rally of 10,000 people in the eastern state of Terengganu and blames his country's economic decline on a Jewish conspiracy. Mahathir Mohamad blames currency speculation - which resulted in the ringgit, Malaysia's currency, falling by 18 per cent against the U.S. dollar since July 1997 - on Jews. Commentators see this attack as evidence that Mahathir does not understand the causes of Malaysia's economic decline. The 'New York Times' newspaper publishes figures which show that New York has proportionally fewer burglaries than London, and that Los Angeles has proportionally fewer burglaries than Sydney. However, violent crime, such as street robbery, is up by 6 per cent in the U.S.A. since 1980. The U.S.A. also has up to 18 times more murders than any other industrial democracy.

1997 October 13 United Kingdom Prime Minister Tony Blair shakes hands with Gerry Adams, president of Sinn Fein, a party with links to the terrorist Irish Republican Army, at a meeting in Belfast, Northern Ireland. It is widely seen as a symbolic gesture of goodwill toward the peace process, although loyalist extremists jostle Blair when he visits a shopping mall in east Belfast after the meeting. John Denver, the pop singer, dies at the age of 53 when his private plane crashes into the sea off northern California, U.S.A. Originally a song-writer, he became famous in the 1970's for singing country songs such as 'Rocky Mountain High', 'Take Me Home', and 'Annie's Song'.

1997 October 14 During her tour of India, the United Kingdom's Queen Elizabeth II lays a memorial wreath at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, Punjab, the site of the 1919 massacre. On April 13, 1919, a British army commander, General Dyer, ordered his troops to fire without warning on a peaceful demonstration for Indian independence. As a result, nearly 400 people were killed and at least 1,200 others wounded. Anti-British feeling has been aroused by the refusal of successive UK governments to apologise for the massacre. The Queen also visits the Golden Temple, the most sacred Sikh site in India. In the United Kingdom, the Indian writer Arundhati Roy wins the 21,000-pounds-sterling Booker Prize for Fiction with her first novel, 'The God of Small Things'. The book is a lyrical, tragi-comic novel set in and around a pickle factory in Kerala, southern India, and is based on Roy's childhood experiences. It has sold 400,000 copies worldwide. The Red Cross organization announces that the death toll caused by Hurricane Pauline has risen to 400. The hurricane struck the Mexican coast on October 9.

1997 October 15 Andy Green, a British Royal Air Force fighter pilot, becomes the first man to break the sound barrier on land. Squadron leader Green drives a Thrust SSC car at an average of 1,228 kilometres per hour, subject to confirmation, during two runs in the Black Rock Desert, Nevada, U.S.A. This betters the British team's breaking of the land speed record on September 25. The business district of the Sri Lankan capital, Colombo, is hit by a bomb in the city's worst violence in 14 years of civil war. At least 15 people are killed and more than 100 injured as Tamil rebels force their way into the car park of the Galadari Hotel and set off a truck bomb. A gun battle between rebels and Sri Lankan troops is responsible for several of the deaths. More than 50,000 people have been killed since the uprising, in support of a homeland for Sri Lanka's Tamil minority, began in 1983.

1997 October 16 The legendary revolutionary Ernesto 'Che' Guevara is buried in the central Cuban city of Santa Clara. A former comrade of Cuba's President Fidel Castro, Guevara was killed by Bolivian government troops in October 1967, while trying to start a revolution. His body was presumed missing until a retired Bolivian officer revealed its location in 1996. It was exhumed and brought to Cuba on July 13, 1997. Hundreds of thousands of Cubans filed past Guevara's coffin when it was put on display in the capital Havana last week. The Republic of Congo's former Marxist ruler, General Denis Sassou-Nguesso, declares victory over deposed President Pascal Lissouba. After a four-month civil war, Sassou's militia seizes the capital, Brazzaville, and the main oil port, Pointe-Noire, with help from Angolan troops. Sassou ruled the Congo from 1979 until 1992, when he lost the general election to Lissouba. The civil war broke out in June 1997 when both men were preparing to be candidates in a new general election.

1997 October 17 A 15-year-old Japanese boy is sentenced to indefinite detention for beheading a younger boy in May 1997. The convicted boy, who cannot be named under Japan's juvenile law, is found guilty of two murders at Kobe Family Court. The discovery of 11-year-old Jun Hase's body on May 27, and the subsequent arrest of a juvenile suspect, shocked Japanese society. President Kwasniewski of Poland appoints Jerzy Buzek as prime minister and asks him to form a new government. Buzek, a veteran trade union adviser, was nominated by Solidarity Electoral Action, an alliance of anti-communist parties led by the Solidarity trade union. It won the general election on September 21.

1997 October 18 The new Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain, is opened by King Juan Carlos. Built by Frank Gehry, an American architect, it is a massive, curved structure covered in shining titanium, and situated next to the Nervion River in the city's industrial zone. Its largest gallery is 137 metres long and houses Richard Serra's 174-ton steel sculpture 'Snake'. The museum will display both a permanent collection of modern art and loaned art works from New York's Guggenheim Museum. New research shows that marine life on coral reefs is endangered by pollution. 'Reef Check 1997' is a survey of 250 reefs by more than 100 teams of marine scientists. It concludes that reefs are damaged by run-offs of fertiliser, the use of cyanide and dynamite in fishing, and oil exploration. Even remote locations, such as north Borneo, are affected. One result is a drop in the number of species in an important area of sea ecology.

1997 October 19 The Pope bestows one of the Roman Catholic Church's highest honours on Saint Therese of Lisieux, a 19th-century French nun known as the 'Little Flower'. In a ceremony in Saint Peter's Square, Rome, John Paul II made her a Doctor of the Church, a title given to selected saints whose teachings are considered to have outstanding merit. Therese died, aged 24, at a Lisieux convent in 1897. She was an inspiration for Mother Teresa, who died on September 5, 1997. In Bosnia, Pale Television, the station which supports Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadzic, is shut down by peacekeeping troops, led by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The ban, which had been in force until two days ago, is reimposed after the station incites Bosnian Serbs to attack peacekeepers.

1997 October 20 The United States Department of Energy announces that greenhouse gases have increased in the U.S.A by 3.4 per cent in the past year. U.S. emissions of greenhouse gases - carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, which are responsible for air pollution and damage to the Earth's ozone layer - have increased each year in the 1990's. This fact seriously undermines the credibility of U.S. President Bill Clinton's 1993 commitment to reduce emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000. A demonstration of about 4,000 office workers and business executives in the Thai capital of Bangkok calls on the country's Prime Minister Chavalit Yongchaiyudh to resign. Protestors are angry that Chavalit has reneged on a promise to raise the tax on oil in an attempt to help the Thai economy recover from its recent slump. Chavalit has been in power for just over 10 months.

1997 October 21 In Russia, the writer Alexander Solzhenitsyn launches a literary prize named after himself. His wife, Natalya, says that the prize - of 25,000 U.S. dollars, to be paid in dollars, not roubles - will be restricted to writers living in Russia. The Solzhenitsyns will head a jury of six and the first award for a book written in the 'national literary tradition' will be made in March 1998. Solzhenitsyn, aged 79, was expelled from the Soviet Union in 1974 for writing 'The Gulag Archipelago', an expose of Stalin's labour camps, and returned to Russia in 1994. Three Chinese women break the world record for running 5,000 metres. At China's National Games, held in Shanghai, 17-year-old Dong Yanmei is recorded as running 5,000 metres in 14min 31.27sec, beating the world record set by Portugal's Fernanda Ribeiro in 1995. Her team mates, Jiang Bo and Liu Shixiang, also break the world record. Dong is a protege of the coach Ma Junren.

1997 October 22 Parachutists in Paris celebrate the 200th anniversary of the first parachute jump, made by Frenchman Andre-Jacques Garnerin, who dropped about 400 metres from a hot-air balloon in 1797. Seventy-six people, including French actor Jean-Paul Belmondo, aged 64, parachuted onto the Champs de Mars in central Paris. The Lloyds Bank British Fashion Awards are won by designers John Galliano, 36, and Alexander McQueen, 27. For the first time in the 13-year history of the UK's top fashion award, which is sponsored by Lloyds Bank, there are two joint winners. Galliano and McQueen, who design for the Paris fashion houses Christian Dior and Givenchy, receive their awards at a ceremony in the Royal Albert Hall, London.

1997 October 23 On the eve of the meeting of Commonwealth heads of state in Edinburgh, Scotland, the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group decides not to impose new sanctions on Nigeria. However, if Nigeria fails to set up a democratic government by October 1998, it will be expelled from the Commonwealth and oil sanctions will be imposed. At the moment, Nigeria is governed by a military junta led by General Sani Abacha, who seized power in 1993. The European Court of Justice upholds the Swedish government's monopoly on alcohol. It accepts Sweden's argument that state control of the manufacture and sale of alcoholic drinks is part of its public health policy, which is necessary to prevent alcohol abuse. The court rejects a complaint by Harry Franzen, a Swede who wants to sell wine in his grocery store, that government restrictions on sales are an unfair interference in the free market.

1997 October 24 Zoran Todorovic, a senior official in Yugoslavia's ruling alliance, is shot dead in Belgrade. Todorovic, aged 38 and an ally of President Slobodan Milosevic, was secretary of the powerful neo-Communist United Yugoslav Left party, which is led by Milosevic's wife, Mirjana. Although his assassin escapes, there is speculation that he was killed because of alleged links with gangsters. In Algeria, the ruling National Democratic Rally party wins more than 50 per cent of the votes in the first local elections in five years, amid accusations of fraud by opposition politicians and analysts. The result of the elections is almost identical to that of the June elections, and there have been reports of fear and intimidation among the electorate. The local elections are part of President Zeroual's move toward a civil constitution, but will do little to alleviate the country's economic and social crisis.

1997 October 25 The historic Reading Room of the British Library closes. Situated in the British Museum in London, the domed reading room opened in 1857 and has been used by researchers, including Karl Marx, ever since. It will now be turned into an information centre by 2000. Its replacement, the Humanities Reading Room at the new British Library next to Saint Pancras station, about two kilometres away, is due to open on November 24. South Africa's President Nelson Mandela asks United Kingdom Prime Minister Tony Blair to drop his demand that Libya should surrender two men suspected of bombing a Pan Am aeroplane over Lockerbie, Scotland, in 1988. Mandela, who is in Edinburgh at a meeting of the heads of Commonwealth countries, says that the suspects would not get a fair trial in the United Kingdom or the U.S.A. Mandela visited Libya last week.

1997 October 26 Secret cameras located in hospital wards in two hospitals within the United Kingdom reveal the torture and abuse of infant patients by their parents. The findings of these hidden cameras have led to the conviction of 33 out of the 39 sets of parents observed over the last eight years, and reveal a disturbing scale of parental abuse upon infants. The medals of Lieutenant-Colonel John McRae, the Canadian who wrote the World War I poem 'In Flanders Fields', are sold at auction in Toronto, Canada. Arthur Lee, a Chinese immigrant to Canada, pays 180,000 pounds sterling for the medals and donates them to the McRae Museum in Guelph, Ontario.

1997 October 27 The Wall Street stock exchange in New York suffers its biggest ever one-day fall. The Dow Jones Industrial Average, an index of stock market share prices, falls more than 550 points to 7161.15. This is a bigger fall than the 'Black Monday' crash of October 19, 1987. The panic selling follows a fall on stock exchanges in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Tokyo. Many commentators say that this is due to economic difficulties in Southeast Asia. Iraq claims that sanctions imposed by the United Nations have caused more than one million children to die. Dhari Mahmood, head of the Justice Ministry in the capital Baghdad, publishes a report which says that sanctions have caused a rise in mortality rates among women, children, and the elderly. The report is presented to the United Nations human rights committee. The United Nations imposed sanctions on Iraq following the country's defeat in the 1991 Gulf War.

1997 October 28 Zambia's President Frederick Chiluba announces that a military coup by a small group of officers has failed. The plotters, led by Captain Steven Lungu under the nickname 'Captain Solo', briefly occupy the state radio station in the capital Lusaka, before being arrested by the authorities. Lungu claims to have been inspired by an angel, who told him to eradicate corruption. An appeal court in Guatemala overturns the convictions of three high-ranking government officials, who had been given 10-year prison sentences for the killing of a student in 1994. In July, the former Interior Minister Danilo Parrinello, his deputy, Mario Alfredo Merida, and the former police chief, Salvador Figueroa, were found responsible for the death of Alioto Lopez at the hands of riot police. But the appeal court agrees with the defence's argument that the three were doing their duty by maintaining order.

1997 October 29 The United Kingdom government asks Brazil for the extradition of Ronald Biggs, the 'Great Train Robber'. Biggs, aged 68, escaped from Wandsworth Prison in London in 1965 after serving 15 months of a thirty year sentence for his part in the 2.6 million-pounds-sterling robbery on the Glasgow to London train in 1963. For 27 years he has lived in Brazil, which did not have an extradition treaty with the UK until August 1997. An animal rights group claims that ivory poaching in Africa is increasing. The International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) says that since the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (Cites) decided in June 1997 that Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe could sell stocks of ivory to Japan, illegal killing of elephants has increased in Zambia, Kenya, Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo. IFAW says the Cites meeting resulted in a more relaxed attitude to the ban on the ivory trade.

1997 October 30 Louise Woodward, a 19-year-old British au pair, is convicted of the murder of Matthew Eappen, the 8-month-old baby whom she was employed to care for in Boston, USA. The trial has aroused controversy as Woodward's lawyers opted for an "all or nothing" approach, dropping the lesser charge of manslaughter and confining the jury's consideration of guilt to the charge of murder alone. Louise is found guilty of murdering the baby on February 4, 1997, and faces the mandatory life sentence, with no application for parole allowed for 15 years. Mary McAleese is elected eighth president of the Irish Republic, becoming the first Irish president to come from Northern Ireland. McAleese, a 46-year-old pro-vice-chancellor of Queen's University in Belfast, won by an 18 point lead over her nearest rival, and replaces Mary Robinson who resigned in September to become the United Nations High Comissioner for Human Rights. Only 50 per cent of the electorate exercised their voting rights, lower than any previous presidential election.

1997 October 31 Hillary Clinton, the United States' First Lady, visits Belfast to deliver the first Joyce McCartan memorial lecture at the University of Ulster, where she asks for renewed participation from both sides in the peace talks. Community worker McCartan, who died in 1995, lost her son and 17 other relatives during Northern Ireland's political unrest.

1997 November 1 Charles, Prince of Wales, begins an official tour of South Africa. With him is his son, Prince Harry, making his first public appearance since the death of his mother (see August 31). Prince Charles introduces South African President Nelson Mandela to a British pop group, the Spice Girls, before a Nations Trust charity concert in Johannesburg. The south of England is suffering from its worst drought since records began, raising concerns that new water restrictions may be enforced. The past 30 months are the driest such period ever recorded, and environmental damage is threatened unless substantial rain falls during the winter.

1997 November 2 A ceremony in remembrance of homosexual soldiers takes place at the Cenotaph in London, with gay servicemen and women paying tribute to those who lost their lives during active service. The event is controversial and is condemned by the Royal British Legion as "distasteful and offensive". The leaders of Japan and Russia pledge to seal a peace treaty by the year 2000, ending territorial disputes that have lasted since the end of the World War II. The talks between President Yeltsin and Prime Minister Hashimoto take place in Krasnoyarsk, Russia, and promise a new era of cooperation between the two powers.

1997 November 3 In New Zealand, Prime Minister Jim Bolger announces he will stand down after seven years in office, leaving Jenny Shipley as leader of the National Party which forms part of the country's current coalition government. This move is expected to lead to Shipley gaining power as New Zealand's first female prime minister. In the United Kingdom, a businessman is jailed for life for the murder of his wife in the Punjab in 1987. Just prior to the death of Ninderjit Kaur Kular, her husband, Mohan Singh Kular insured her life for more than 1.3 million U.S. dollars. He then bribed officials in India to uphold his claim that she was killed in a traffic accident. It has taken ten years for British police to uncover the true version of events.

1997 November 4 Australia proposes the conversion of two of its three Antarctic research bases into summer tourist centres. Because Australia has a territorial claim on 43 per cent of Antarctica, environmentalists fear that tourism will threaten the area's ecosystem. Officials stress that the influx of tourists will be strictly controlled, and the proposition will effectively meet the growing demand for access to the continent for exploration. The judge in the trial of au pair Louise Woodward is to announce his decision to uphold, overturn, or change her conviction via a web page on the Internet. This is the first time that the Internet has been used to directly release a court decision (see also October 30 and November 10). It is announced by a British research team in London that they have successfully developed a technique for repairing damaged brain tissue in rodents. The new treatment transplants brain cells grown from fetal tissue into a damaged brain. The transplanted cells then migrate to the areas of damage and take on the characteristics of the dead cells. It is hoped the treatment can be developed to lead to cures for diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

1997 November 5 Ireland's Labour Party Leader Dick Spring steps down after 15 years in office. A cabinet minister since 1981, Spring retires following Mary McAleese's defeat of his preferred candidate in the presidential elections (see October 30). A former prisoner of the Auschwitz concentration camp is paid compensation from the German government, who were proven to have financially benefited from the slave labour enforced upon the plaintiff. This is the first time the German government has been successfully sued for compensation, and it is thought that many more former prisoners will now lodge their own complaints against the state. In South East Asia, 265 people die and thousands more are missing as Typhoon Linda devastates areas in and around Thailand and Vietnam. In Vietnam, 128-kilometres-per-hour winds and 3.3-metre-high waves leave 235 dead, and a further 150,000 homeless. The damage caused by the typhoon is expected to run into hundreds of millions of U.S. dollars. Sir Isaiah Berlin, the Russian philosopher and historian famous as a witness and commentator on the most significant events of this century, dies aged 88. Sir Isaiah, a strong believer in the importance of integrating philosophy with human affairs, was also well known for his theories of liberalism, and his belief in the principle of liberty. He dies in hospital in Oxford, UK, and is remembered by many as "the world's wisest man".

1997:On 2 November, the Rehabilitation Project for the Earthquake devastated people of Jabalpur is inaugurated

1997 November 6 Snorre Linquist, a Swedish architect, wins an international competition to redesign Bethlehem, a town in the West Bank, for the millennium. Linquist is to undertake the redesigning of Manger Square, birthplace of Jesus, as part of the "Bethlehem 2000" scheme aimed at improving the appearance of one of the most important places of pilgrimage for Christians. Torrential rainstorms in southern Portugal and Spain kill 31 people and leave others injured. The 100-kilometres-per-hour winds devastate villages in southern regions, cutting off electricity and telephone supplies, as well as road, rail, and air links. Army units are brought in to help free those trapped by the waters, and to clear up the debris left by the storms.

1997 November 7 The strike by French truck drivers that began on November 2 ends as a pay deal is struck between the largest French drivers' union and employers. Work is begun to remove the barricades that have blocked many roads, and caused frustration for drivers trapped in the country. In Japan, an animated film smashes box office records and proves more popular and lucrative than even "ET", Steven Spielberg's record-breaking film. "The Princess Mononoke" carries an environmental message, and is accompanied by a range of themed souvenirs.

1997 November 8 In China, the main channel of the Yangtse River is blocked as work begins on the construction of the controversial Three Gorges Dam. The dam is due to be completed by 2009, and will cause the relocation of 1.2 million people whose homes will be flooded as the river's course is blocked. The dam project has been attacked as dangerous. Some experts predict that any dam attempting to contain the Yangtse, the third longest river in the world, will inevitably collapse. The project, which will involve the creation of a 183-metre-high dam and a 644-kilometre-long reservoir, has also been condemned because it will flood areas of archaeological interest and exterminate the rare river dolphin. Once completed, the dam will be capable of generating as much electricity as about 18 nuclear power plants.

1997 November 9 Throughout the UK, a two minute silence is observed at 11 am as those who died in active service are remembered. In London, the Queen, Queen Mother, and other members of the British Royal family attend the Remembrance Sunday Memorial ceremony at the Cenotaph in Whitehall. In Coventry, the Japanese Ambassador Sadayuki Hayashi lays a wreath at the city's cathedral, becoming the first Japanese representative to pay such a tribute in the UK. The US spacecraft Soho discovers a magnetic field lying between the Sun's surface and its corona. This field transfers energy to the corona, resulting in it becoming a hundred times hotter than the actual surface of the sun. President Nursultan of Kazakhstan presides over the ceremony marking the move of the country's capital from Almaty to Akmola. Israeli archaeologists reveal the discovery of a large rock in Jerusalem, thought to be that which was worshipped as the resting place of the Virgin Mary as she travelled to Bethlehem to give birth to Jesus Christ. The stone, believed to have been revered by Christians until the 1,000's, has been excavated from a site along the road to Bethlehem from Jerusalem.

1997 November 10 Archaeologists announce the discovery of a Neolithic temple in Somerset, in the United Kingdom. The 5,000-year-old structure is the largest prehistoric building ever discovered, and is near the site of the Stanton Drew stone circles. The site is entirely underground, and was discovered using a magnetometer. It is unlikely to be excavated for fear of damaging the structure. The temple is thought to be as important as Stonehenge, an ancient stone monument in Wiltshire, UK. China and Russia formally end a territorial dispute by signing a declaration that maps out the border between the two countries. Presidents Jiang Zemin and Boris Yeltsin signed the agreement in Beijing at the end of the Sino-Russian summit, ending a territorial dispute that has lasted since the 1600's. In Boston, U.S.A., British au pair Louise Woodward has her murder conviction reduced to manslaughter by Judge Hiller Zobel. Zobel passes a sentence of 279 days in prison, the time already served by Woodward since she was charged in February. Woodward walks free from the courtroom but is ordered to stay in the USA until a prosecution appeal has been heard (see also November 4 and October 30).

1997:Between 10 and 14 November the Orthodox-Catholic Dialogue is held at Sophia Centre, Kottayam

1997 November 11 The European Court of Justice rules against a male teacher's claim that he lost a promotion because of his gender. Helmut Marschall of Germany took his claim to court when a female colleague was given the job under "female promotion" rules. The court's ruling means that preferring women who are equally qualified for jobs does not infringe equal opportunity regulations, and is hailed as a "victory for working women". The mayor of Lokeren in Belgium issues a special decree banning people from gathering in groups of more than five. The decree follows a period of unrest in and around Belgium's capital, Brussels, between armed police and hundreds of immigrants, most of whom come from North Africa.

1997 November 12 Ronnie Biggs avoids extradition from Brazil to the United Kingdom 32 years after escaping from Wandsworth Prison where he was imprisoned for his part in the Great Train Robbery. Brazil's Supreme Court rejects the UK's extradition case on the grounds that their statute of limitations prevents action being taken on crimes committed more than twenty years ago. Biggs is now certain of escaping British justice if he remains at his home in Rio de Janeiro. In China, a team of Chinese and American scientists reveal the discovery of the near-perfect skeleton of a mammal that lived almost 140 million years ago. It is hoped the rat-like mammal will give information about the development of evolution. Ramzi Ahmed Yousef and Eyad Ismail are found guilty of the bomb attack on the World Trade Center in New York in 1993 which killed six people and injured more than a thousand others. Yousef was found guilty of masterminding a plot to destroy the building and kill many thousands of people, and Ismail was convicted on conspiracy charges. Both men face life in prison without parole.

1997 November 13 Scientists from the Imperial Cancer Research Fund in London announce their discovery that a cancer cell's signalling mechanism is on the surface of the cell and not inside it was previously thought. This mechanism determines whether the cell lives or dies, and it is believed that its location should now be an easier target for new drugs to regulate its lifespan. The new drugs would be able to attack cancer cells without damaging normal ones, and thus would be an easier and safer way of treating cancer patients. Somalia suffers extensive flooding in the southern Juba region as torrential rains cause rivers to overflow. At least 500 people are announced dead, but it is feared many more will perish if rains continue over Somalia, Kenya, and Ethiopia. The floods destroy livestock, food supplies and crops, and leave more than 200,000 people homeless.

1997 November 14 French President Jacques Chirac opens the seventh summit of Francophone countries. Held in Vietnam, the aim of the meeting of 49 nominally French-speaking countries is, according to Chirac, to resist the dominance of English as a world language and to promote the use of French. Although the 49 countries that make up 'La Francophonie' have a population of 450 million people, only 160 million of them speak French as a first language. Boutrous Boutros-Ghali is elected as secretary-general of the summit, following his resignation of the same post in the United Nations. A jury in the USA recommends the death penalty for Mir Aimal Kasi, a Pakistan citizen found guilty of killing two Central Intelligence Agency employees during a shooting rampage outside the agency's headquarters in January, 1993. Prosecutors say Kasi, aged 33, shot the two people because he was angry at American interference in Muslim countries. The trial has heightened anti-American feeling in Pakistan, where four American oil executives were killed on November 12 in retaliation against Kasi's conviction.

1997 November 15 An Iraqi newspaper calls for political sympathisers in the Arab world to launch terrorist attacks against American and British targets in the Middle East. The Baghdad daily newspaper 'Babel', which is owned by Uday Hussein, eldest son of Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein, says that civilian as well as military targets should be attacked. The threat is the latest escalation in the war of words between Iraq and the USA since the Iraqi leader expelled United Nations weapons inspectors earlier this month. Russian President Boris Yeltsin dismisses two pro-Western reformers because of a corruption scandal. Maxim Boiko, minister for privatization, and Pyotr Mostovoi, head of the Russian Bankruptcy Commission, are found guilty of accepting large sums of money from a publisher in exchange for favouring the company during the sale of state assets. Several other top aides have also resigned, although Anatoly Chubais, the first deputy prime minister and chief driving force behind privatization, remains in his post.

1997 November 16 The Chinese government frees a sick dissident and allows him to travel to the USA on medical parole. Wei Jingsheng, aged 47, was sentenced to 14 years imprisonment in 1993 on charges of trying to overthrow the government. A long-term critic of China's communist system and an advocate of Western-style democracy, he has spent almost 20 years in prison for his beliefs. Wei's release has been expected since President Jiang Zemin returned from his state visit to the USA earlier this month. Pope John Paul II inaugurates the Special Assembly for America of the Synod of Bishops at the Vatican in Rome. The assembly, which will last until December 19, aims to highlight ways in which to attract lapsed Roman Catholics back to the church, and is attended by 297 people, ranging from archbishops to priests. Others assemblies on Asia, Oceania, and Europe are expected to follow. Jenny Shipley is confirmed as New Zealand's first woman prime minister when her National Party's junior coalition partner, the New Zealand First party, agrees to stay in the government, which has a majority of one (see also November 3).

1997 November17 In Rwanda, almost 300 people are killed as more than a thousand Hutu rebels attack a jail in an attempt to free Hutu genocide suspects. Clashes between the rebels and the predominantly Tutsi army continue for many hours. In Egypt, 62 people, most of them tourists, are killed by terrorists at the historic Temple of Queen Hatshepsut in Luxor. The attack, which involved indiscriminate killing with knives and guns, is believed to be the work of the Gamaat Islamiya, a radical Islamist extremist group. Six of the attackers are hunted down and killed. Nigeria's military ruler General Sani Abacha dissolves his cabinet so that some of its members will be free to take part in his plan to restore civilian rule. General Abacha also announces his plans to grant amnesty to some of the many political prisoners held by his government.

1997 November 18 In Delhi, India, at least 27 children are killed when their school bus crashes into the Yamuna River. The bus, carrying nearly twice its permitted capacity of 60, was transporting the pupils to school. More than 70 passengers are injured and others are still missing. The city government announces two days of mourning for the dead. A baby kidnapped seven years ago at the age of 14 months is found in Puerto Rico with the help of the Internet site of the National Centre for Missing and Exploited Children. The child was found nearly 5,000 kilometres away from San Diego, U.S.A., where she was abducted when the woman who claimed to be her mother was investigated for alleged abuse of the child. Investigators consequently discovered that the child's birth certificate was a fake, and then compared a recent photograph of the girl with those on the website. The child was identified through her distinctive smile and a tiny birthmark on her face. Her abductor is under arrest.

1997 November 19 In Zimbabwe, President Robert Mugabe announces a list of farms he intends to acquire in order to nationalize half of the country's commercial farms. His action is part of the programme of redistribution of land begun after Zimbabwe gained independence in 1980. Many white farmers are angry that they may lose their livelihoods. In Taiwan, the country's most wanted criminal surrenders to police after a hostage siege lasting two days. Chen Chin-hsing is wanted in connection with a number of rapes and murders. He took hostage a South African diplomat and his family in Taipei in an attempt to negotiate for the release of his wife and brother but finally gave himself up following lengthy police negotiations. A woman from Iowa, USA, gives birth to the world's first successfully delivered set of septuplets. Bobbi McCaughey gave birth to the seven babies following fertility treatment with the drug Pergonal. Doctors are optimistic that all the babies will live, giving them a 96 per cent chance of survival.

1997 November 20 In the United Kingdom, Queen Elizabeth and her husband Prince Philip celebrate their fiftieth wedding anniversary at a special banquet held in Whitehall, London. Many well-wishers turn out to congratulate the royal couple as they greet the public on the way to the banqueting hall. The royal couple are also celebrating the reopening of Windsor Castle, which has been fully restored following its destruction in a fire five years ago. A fossilised section of a jawbone from a shrew-like animal is discovered in Australia. The finding of the fossil may lead to a rewriting of evolutionary history, as placental mammals were not thought to have reached Australia until 5 million years ago, yet the fossil dates from more than 115 million years ago. If the analysis of the fossil proves correct, it will revolutionise theories of where mammals first evolved and lived. The Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein backs down on his expulsion of U.S. weapons inspectors from the country. He agrees to let the inspectors return with the rest of the UN inspectorate team, whose duties are to ensure Iraq does not manufacture nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons.

1997 November 21 In New Zealand, an indigenous land claim is finally settled after 149 years with the signing of the Ngai Tahu deal. The deal includes an apology for breaches of agreement by the former colonial British powers, a large compensation payout from the Crown to Maori tribespeople, and the renaming of Mount Cook, New Zealand's highest mountain, as Aoraki/Mt Cook. North Korea agrees to resume its talks with South Korea, China, and the United States in order to agree on an agenda for peace negotiations to be held in Geneva in December. It is hoped this will bring an end to the hostility between North and South Korea, who are technically still at war since no peace treaty was signed following the end of the Korean War in 1953. Historical research into the Old City in Jerusalem claims that the Wailing Wall, the holiest site of Jewish worship, belongs to Muslim authorities and not the state of Israel. The site of the wall is also part of the Temple Mount where two important Muslim places of worship were relocated for political reasons. Shmuel Berkovitch's study claims that because the Jewish authorities have not laid claim to it, the wall belongs to the Muslim faith since it remains the property of the Waqf, the Islamic trust which administers the Temple Mount.

1997 November 22 Australian rock star Michael Hutchence is found dead in a hotel room in Sydney. Hutchence, aged 37, is discovered hanging by a leather belt from the door to his suite. Police are investigating the circumstances of his death. In Portsmouth, UK, Her Majesty's yacht Britannia arrives after its final voyage. The boat has travelled more than 1.6-million-kilometres during its 43 years as the Royal yacht. Britannia attracts crowds of onlookers as it arrives in port for its decommissioning in December.

1997 November 23 In Slovenia, the former Yugoslav republic, Milan Kucan is reelected as president for a second five-year term. Nirad C. Chaudhuri celebrates his 100th birthday at Oxford University, United Kingdom. Chaudhuri is regarded by many as one of the twentieth century's greatest writers following works such as "The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian". Elections begin in Banja Luka, the largest Serb town in Bosnia. Banja Lukans, once the most ardent supporters of an ethnically pure Serbian state, are expected to back Biljana Plavsic and her plans to implement the Dayton peace treaty. This would mean the return of Muslim and Croat refugees, and freedom of movement across Bosnia. The results of the election will determine the make-up of the Bosnian Serb parliament.

1997 November 24 In London, the new British Library building opens at a cost of 511 million-pounds-sterling. The library is one of the most expensive public buildings erected this century, and is completed more than fifty years after the project was first suggested at the end of World War II. In South Africa, Winnie Mandela, former wife of President Nelson Mandela, attends the first day of an inquiry into her alleged links with a series of tortures, kidnappings, and murders. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission is investigating claims that Mandela led a campaign of fear and violence during the apartheid era. Present are 34 accusers who give evidence against her in a hearing that has been called by Archbishop Desmond Tutu a "search for truth, not a trial". In Niger, President Ibrahim Mainassara dismisses his government for alleged "incompetence". Mainassara seized power in the country last year, and is now appealing to opposition groups to form a new administration with him.

1997 November 25 In Afghanistan, United Nations monitors are allowed by Taliban authorities to supervise the destruction of opium poppies in the Kandahar province. Afghanistan, the world's largest opium producer, plans to phase out poppy production althogether over the next five years. The UN and foreign governments have pledged economic assistance to the country in order for the plan to be viable. Using their hands, an American and a Japanese astronaut recapture a rogue spinning satellite. In a three-hour operation, during which the astronauts are secured by their feet to the outside of their space shuttle Columbia, the malfunctioning satellite Spartan 201 is recaptured and returned to the shuttle for repair. Hastings Kamuzu Banda, the first president of Malawi, dies in a Johannesburg hospital at the age of 99. Banda led Malawi to independence from the United Kingdom in 1964, and became president in 1966. Until the country's first democratic elections in 1994, he ruled as dictator. Malawi's president, Bakili Muluzi, announces a period of mourning until December 3, even though Banda was accused of committing torture and murder during his period in power.

1997 November 26 A United Nations report reveals that more than 30 million people worldwide are infected with HIV, the virus that leads to AIDS. Developing countries, especially in Africa, are being worst hit by the disease due to the lack of education and available contraception. The UN warns that if the rate of infection continues unchecked, more than 40 million people will be living with the disease by the year 2000. In Berlin, more than 40,000 students march the streets in protest against reduced government funding of university education. The students target the poicies of Chancellor Helmut Kohl as the cause of funding cuts, but he blames opposition-controlled local governments.

1997 November 27 The United Nations reveal that the death toll in Somalia has risen to 1,461 as a result of the flooding that began almost a month ago. More than 230,000 Somalis have been made homeless as the rains continue over East Africa, and many refugees are left stranded by the waters. Food stocks and crops have also been destroyed, and aid attempts are being hampered by the lack of a central administration in Somalia. British scientists announce that 1997 will be the world's hottest year since records began in the 1860's, with the year's temperature being 0.43 degrees centigrade above the 1961-1990 average. The scientists also reveal that the five hottest years have all been since 1990, and this rise in global temperature is probably due to human abuse of the ecosystem. The International Football Hall of Fame is inaugurated in London with the publication of a top twenty players list. More than 500,000 fans from across the world voted via the Internet to elect Pele, from Brazil, as the greatest footballer ever.

1997 November 28 In New South Wales, Australia, more than 150 forest fires are burning, prompting warnings that the fires may be as bad as those which destroyed nearly 770,000 hectares of forest and killed four people in 1994. So far, almost 6,000 hectares have been destroyed in the area. India's prime minister, Inder Kumar Gujral, resigns his post as the government collapses for the third time in two years. Gujral is forced to step down after the Congress Party withdraws its support from the ruling coalition. Congress Party members accuse one of the other coalition members of supporting rebels linked with the assassination of former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1991.

1997 November 29 In the West Bank town of Bethlehem 48 people are killed as fighting between Israeli troops and Palestinian demonstrators lasts for five hours. The demonstratotrs were protesting against the imprisonment of Itaf Alayan, a Palestinian woman linked with a militant Islamist group. In California, USA, a surrogate mother makes medical history as she becomes the first woman to become pregnant using the eggs of a dead woman. The eggs belong to Julie Garber who died of leukaemia a year ago after having her eggs harvested and fertilized by an anonymous donor. Her parents advertised for a surrogate mother to carry the eggs in spite of an outcry in the USA over the ethics of the case.

1997 November 30 The Czech prime minister, Vaclav Klaus, resigns after most of his cabinet withdraw their support. Klaus was the longest serving prime minister in eastern Europe, and oversaw the change from communism to capitalism in the Czech Republic. In Montserrat, fears are raised over the survival of the island's national bird, the Monserrat Oriole, one of the rarest species in the world. Only 200 of the island's population of orioles survived the recent volcanic eruption on Montserrat (see June 27). A British woman convicted of the murder of Australian nurse Yvonne Gilford becomes the first foreign female prisoner to marry in prison in Saudi Arabia. Lucille McLaughlan marries her fiance, Grant Ferrie, in a courthouse in Dammam, following negotiations between Saudi and British diplomats. McLaughlan has still to serve the eight years of her murder sentence.

1997 December 1 In Kentucky, U.S.A., a schoolboy aged 14 opens fire on pupils at his school as they leave a prayer meeting. Three girls aged 14, 15, and 17 die in the attack at Heath High School, and five other pupils are injured. The boy, wearing earplugs, fires more than ten shots from a .22 calibre gun before surrendering to the school principal. The boy, who has not been named, is described as an average student who has not been in trouble before. The Spanish Supreme Court sentences 23 leaders of the Herri Batasuna party to seven years each in prison on charges of collaborating with terrorists. The Herri Batasuna party is the political wing of the terrorist ETA group, a Basque separatist movement. The judgment has put police in the Basque region of northern Spain on full alert for fear of reprisals.

1997 December 2 Farooq Ahmed Khan Leghari resigns as president of Pakistan, leaving Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif in sole authority. Leghari's decision to step down is a show of support for his chief justice. The government had insisted that the president dismiss the chief justice who was attempting to try the prime minister for contempt of court. The winner of the Turner Prize for art is announced at the Tate Gallery in London. British artist Gillian Wearing is awarded the 20,000-pounds-sterling prize for her work, including a video art sequence which features a group of actors, dressed in police uniforms, posing motionless for sixty minutes. A three-day conference to decide how to distribute more than five metric tons of gold stolen by the Nazis during World War II opens in London. France, the United States, and the United Kingdom are the joint administrators of the gold that was recaptured in 1945. The conference aims to investigate what happened to the gold during and after the war, and also to ensure satisfactory compensation is paid to those who lost their fortune in the Holocaust (see also May 7, February 5).

1997 December 3 Russian president Boris Yeltsin pledges a drastic reduction in his military forces, especially along the country's northwest border, in order to reassure the Baltic region that Russia no longer poses a threat. Yeltsin promises that, by 1999, he will have reduced Russian forces by 40 per cent in the northwest region. In Ottawa, Canada, 125 countries sign a treaty banning antipersonnel landmines. Three of the world's largest military powers, China, Russia, and the U.S.A., attend only as observers, but pledge to help clear landmines and find alternatives to landmine use.

1997 December 4 In the United Kingdom, farmers protest against the government's ban on the sale of beef on the bone which was introduced yesterday. Ports in England, Scotland, and Wales are blockaded by farmers arguing that the new ban will devastate their livelihoods. The government pledges to implement an emergency aid package for the beef industry. About 300 Hutu militiamen raid a prison in Rwanda and free more than 500 Hutu prisoners charged with murdering Tutsis in a massacre three years ago. At least 10 people are killed in the attack. In Nicaragua, the country's last officially recognized rebel group, the Andres Castro United Front, disarms after signing a peace accord.

1997 December 5 At the Pretoria Supreme Court in South Africa, Moses Sithole is found guilty on 38 counts of murder and 40 counts of rape committed between July 1994 and October 1995. He is sentenced to 2,410 years in prison. In Israel, more than 700,000 people refuse to work as the strike that began on December 2 intensifies. The strike centres around pension and privatization issues, but the government has suspended negotiations until the protesters follow the instructions of a court order to return to work. In Zimbabwe, the opposition leader Ndabaningi Sithole is found guilty of conspiring to murder the country's president, Robert Mugabe, and of plotting to overthrow the state.

1997 December 6 A military aircraft crashes into a block of flats in Irkutsk-2, Siberia, killing at least sixty people. The Antonov-124, one of the world's largest cargo planes, crashes only 20 seconds after takeoff. Fifteen people are taken to hospital, but rescuers fear that their attempts to find more survivors will be in vain. Bombs explode in three trains near Chennai, India, killing ten people and injuring more than 80. The attack coincides with the fifth anniversary of the destruction of the Ayodhya mosque by Hindus.

1997 December 7 In Hong Kong, the government puts the medical profession on alert for a new form of influenza known as "bird flu". The new strain of the illness, officially known as H5N1, was identified four months ago, and is caused by a chicken virus. It has already caused two deaths in the country since June, and there are fears that the new virus may be the start of a flu pandemic. Two bombs left from World War II, each weighing 450 kilograms, are made safe, necessitating the evacuation of almost 20,000 people from a town outside Berlin and a Parisian suburb.

1997 December 8 It is announced that a five-day-old girl became the world's youngest transplant patient after receiving a new liver in an operation at King's College Hospital, London. Baebhen Schuttke, from Dublin, was born with neonatal haemochromatosis and developed liver failure shortly after her birth, five months ago. She was given only a section of the donor liver, which was divided to provide a smaller, fully-functioning organ. The section is now adapting to her body and growing normally. In Hong Kong, a specially selected committee choose 36 people to represent the colony in China's parliament. The committee of 424 fail to choose any members of the country's most popular party, the Democratic party. They do, however, select Jiang Enzhu, a long-time supporter of Peking, even though he is technically ineligible to stand for election as he does not fulfil the seven-year residency criterion.

1997 December 9 The United Kingdom's oldest woman, Lucy Askew, dies at the age of 114 at her nursing home in Essex, UK. In Geneva, talks begin between North and South Korea, China, and the United States in an attempt to end almost 50 years of tension between the parties. This is the first gathering of the four countries for negotiations since the end of the Korean War in 1953. In Harare, Zimbabwe, thousands of people riot on the streets in protest against tax increases to pay for pensions for war veterans. The Zimbabwe Council of Trade Unions calls the day of strike action, and the protest begins peacefully until police charge at the protesters. Many people are injured as cars are overturned and fires lit, and some are arrested. Riot police use tear gas and clubs to break up the demonstration, which had been banned by the government.

1997 December 10 The COP3 environment summit which opened in Kyoto, Japan, on December 1, comes to a close with 38 nations agreeing to a deal which aims to reduce the industrial world's emissions of greenhouse gases. Industrial countries are to reduce their pollution by 5.2 per cent overall between 2008 and 2012, according to the new agreement which will be known as the Kyoto Protocol. Many environmentalists are disappointed by the agreement as they feel it does not go far enough to combat the problem of global warming. In Rwanda, 271 people are killed and a further 227 wounded by Hutu rebels armed with rifles, grenades, and machetes. The rebels attack the Tutsi refugees at the Mudende camp, north of Kigali, at night. In South Africa, more than 400 white farmers protest outside an agricultural hall in Newcastle, KwaZulu-Natal, against the ruling African National Congress. The protest is based on fears over the murder of 15 fellow farmers in the past six weeks, as well as concern that the ANC will speed up its redistribution of white-owned farmland to blacks.

1997 December 11 The prime minister of the United Kingdom, Tony Blair, holds talks with the Sinn Fein leaders Gerry Adams and Martin McGuinness over the future of the Northern Ireland peace process. The meeting is seen as an important step in the negotiations for peace between the UK government and Sinn Fein. In Portsmouth, UK, the Royal Yacht Britannia is decommissioned in a ceremony attended by the Queen, Prince Philip, and other members of the Royal Family. The Britannia has been in service since 1953, and is the last in the line of royal yachts that dates from the 1660's.

1997 December 12 The world's most notorious terrorist, Carlos the Jackal, goes on trial in a court in Paris accused of the murder of two secret service agents in 1975. Carlos, whose real name is Ilich Ramirez Sanchez, has been connected with about 80 further murders, allegedly committed in support of the Palestinian cause during the 1970's and 1980's. Archaelogists announce the discovery of the 500-year-old mummy of a young Inca. It is thought that the body, found near the summit of Mount Ampato, Peru, was a sacrifice to the gods. It has been well preserved by the icy conditions of the region.

1997 December 13 Giovanni Alberto Agnelli, the heir to the Fiat empire, dies in Turin, Italy, at the age of 33. The powerful Agnelli family are revered in Italy, and Giovanni was expected to take over the Fiat business before the turn of the millennium. Italy is in mourning, and messages from the country's president and prime minister are sent in tribute. European beef and lamb is banned by the U.S.A. because of fears that it may be contaminated with BSE, more commonly known as "mad cow disease". The U.S. Agriculture Department states that the ban will be lifted for any country that introduces an effective BSE surveillance programme.

1997 December 14 In Mexico, freak weather conditions bring heavy snowfall and blizzards which kill 12 people and cause chaos on roads and at ports. The snow reaches as far south as Guadalajara, the first time the city has seen snow since 1881. A white man convicted of the murder of an Asian student becomes the first person to be sentenced to death for a racist crime in California, U.S.A. Gunner Lindberg stabbed his victim more than 50 times, and receives the death penalty because of a new law that includes racist killings among the list of capital crimes.

1997 December 15 Only one man survives the crash of an airliner flying from Tajikistan to Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates. The plane crashes in the desert eight miles short of the airport in Sharjah, killing all 77 passengers and all but one of the nine flight crew. Comic actor Stubby Kaye, best known for his stage and film roles in the musical comedy "Guys and Dolls", dies in California, U.S.A. at the age of 79. He had been suffering from lung cancer.

1997 December 16 In South Africa, President Nelson Mandela retires as leader of the African National Congress. He is replaced by Thabo Mbeki, who is now effectively president as the ANC is South Africa's ruling party. Mandela is expected to act as a ceremonial state president until his retirement from politics at the next general election in 1999. The World Wide Fund for Nature announces that more forests were burnt in 1997 than in any other year in recorded history, with large-scale fires burning on every continent except Antarctica. More than 700 children are treated in hospital in Japan after a cartoon broadcast causes convulsions in the viewers. One scene of the "Pocket Monsters" cartoon is thought to be responsible for the epilepsy-like fits, whose symptoms include vomiting, eye irritation, and breathing difficulties.

1997 December 17 A United States judge rules in favour of the families of three Cuban-American pilots who were shot down and killed by a Cuban jet fighter in early 1996. The judge's decision holds the Cuban government and air force responsible for the three deaths, and orders the payment of more than 187-million-U.S.-dollars compensation to the pilots' families.

1997 December 18 Pope John Paul II announces that he has cancelled Christmas Day Mass because his doctors have advised him to rest. Later in the day, the pope is presented with B. B. King's favourite guitar during an audience he gives to the famous blues singer. Kim Dae Jung becomes the first opposition politician to be elected president of South Korea. Jung, who was once imprisoned and tortured for his political beliefs, is elected in preference to the military-backed parties that have ruled the country since its establishment in 1948. Myra Hindley, a notorious prisoner in the United Kingdom, loses her appeal against the decision made by the British home secretary earlier this month that she must spend the rest of her life in prison. Hindley was jailed for life in 1966 for the murder of two children, and has already served the 30-year minimum prison term for a life sentence. In Jamaica, P. J. Patterson is reelected as prime minister for an unprecedented third consecutive term in office. His People's National Party claim victory over the conservative Jamaica Labour Party, and Patterson pledges to end political violence which claimed five lives during the day of voting.

1997 December 19 Former president of South Africa, P. W. Botha, is charged for failing to appear before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) in Johannesburg. The TRC want to question him on his activities whilst president during the apartheid era in South Africa. Botha now faces either a fine or two years in prison. A plane travelling from Jakarta to Singapore crashes in Sumatra, Indonesia, and all 104 passengers are feared dead. The Boeing 737 is thought to have been affected by loss of visibility, caused by forest fires, prior to its crash in a swampy area near the city of Palembang.

1997 December 20 The south of France is badly affected by heavy rains which cause the Herault River to burst its banks. Many villages in the area are swamped and hundreds of people are evacuated from their homes. Juzo Itami, the Japanese film director who made "Tampopo" and "Mimbo no Onna" jumps from his office building and dies in hospital. His suicide may have been in response to allegations in Flash magazine, due to be published on December 22, that he had been conducting an affair with a younger woman.

1997 December 21 In Kenya, the country's president, Daniel arap Moi, is implicated in rioting between Masai and Kisii ethnic groups. Government opponents claim that Moi's ruling Kenya African National Union Party is inciting violence in their Masai supporters, in some cases causing Kisiis to flee their hometown and thus preventing them from voting in the coming elections. In Monte Carlo, the "world's largest Christmas tree" burns down after a decorative light on it short-circuits and causes an explosion. The constructed tree, made of 450 trees positioned around a 30-metre-high frame, was made to mark the 700th anniversary of Grimaldi family rule in Monaco. In Serbia, Milan Milutinovic is elected president amid allegations of vote-rigging by his nationalist opponents. Milutinovic was backed by Slobodan Milosevic's Serbian Socialist Party after Milosevic resigned as president earlier this year.

1997 December 22 In Cairo, Egypt, rival Somali leaders end 40 days of negotiations with the signing of a peace deal. The deal is signed by Hussein Mohamed Aidid and his main opponent Ali Mahdi Mohamed, and sets out terms for a reconciliation conference to be held in February to elect a presidential council, prime minister, and parliament. All but two of the leaders of the 26 Somali faction groups sign the agreement. In the Chiapas state of Mexico, at least 45 Indian refugess are killed by paramilitaries armed with machetes and automatic weapons. More than 20 other people are injured in the attack, thought to have been carried out by up to 60 anti-Zapatista gunmen.

1997 December 23 A Bangladeshi airliner crash-lands in a paddy field but the 89 people on board survive with only minor injuries. The plane was en route to Sylhet from the capital, Dhaka, when poor visibility forced the emergency landing. Officials have described the escape of the 85 passengers and four crew as "miraculous". The trial of Carlos the Jackal ends with his conviction on three counts of murder in a court in Paris. Carlos is sentenced to life in prison, and is led away from the courtroom shouting "Viva la Revolucion" (see also December 12).

1997 December 24 President Laurent Kabila of the renamed Democratic Republic of the Congo appeals for exiled politicians of the Zaire era to return to the country and invest their embezzled funds in the reconstruction of the state. He guarantees that no charges will be brought against those who fled after the collapse of the old regime under Mobutu's rule. The World Bank approves a loan of 27-million-U.S.-dollars to Bosnia to improve the country's gas, electrical, water, and agriculture systems in order to allow Bosnia to meet its international obligations and secure reliable supplies. The loan is approved a week after Bosnia succeeded in clearing its debts to the International Monetary Fund. A United Nations report chronicling the damage caused by the El Nino weather effect during 1997 states that the phenomenon has affected almost 10,000 people, damaged 1,400 houses and destroyed hectares of crops.

1997 December 25 In the United Kingdom, six people are killed and tens of thousands of homes left without electricity as winds of up to 160-kilometres-per-hour cause severe damage. Road and rail links are disrupted by the storms which hit the northwest regions of the U.K. and Ireland. Police in Zambia arrest and imprison Kenneth Kaunda, former president of the country, in the Zambian capital Lusaka. Kaunda is arrested without charge five days after his return to the country following his escape after a failed coup attempt. The people of Cuba celebrate Christmas for the first time in 30 years after Cuban president, Fidel Castro, declares December 25 an official holiday in honour of the Pope's visit to the island during January. Pope John Paul II will be the first pope to visit Cuba.

1997 December 26 In Japan, the leader of the main opposition disbands his political party, the New Frontier Party, in order to launch a new organization. Ichiro Ozawa is thought to have broken up the NFP in order to create a stronger opposition to the immensely unpopular current government. The South Korean currency, the won, makes gains of almost 24 per cent after its value was halved during the country's financial crisis in July. The recovery is the result of a 10-billion-U.S.-dollar cash transfusion from the International Monetary Fund and 13 other countries. Although South Korea is now safe from debt default, its total foreign debt could be as high as 200 billion dollars.

1997 December 27 Northern Ireland's most notorious terrorist is shot dead by fellow prisoners in the Maze prison, near Belfast. Billy Wright, also known as King Rat, was suspected of responsibility for more than 80 murders during the troubles in the country, and was the leader of the militant Loyalist Volunteer Force. On the evening of his murder, fellow LVF terrorists attack a Catholic public house in County Tyrone, leaving four men seriously injured with gunshot wounds. More than 800 illegal immigrants are rescued after their ship runs aground near Calabria, southern Italy. The immigrants, mostly Kurds from Iraq and Turkey, are taken to accommodation centres in the province of Catanzaro.

1997 December 28 In Hong Kong, the government announces that the territory's population of 1.2 million chickens are to be slaughtered within 24 hours in an attempt to combat the "bird flu" that has claimed 4 lives and affected 16 other people (see also December 7). In Chiapas state, Mexico, more than 4,000 Mayan Indians flee their homes amid fears of more violence following last week's massacre. The mayor of Acteal, Mexico, is charged with the December 22 massacre of 45 Indian villagers. Jacinto Arias Cruz is alleged to have provided the weapons for the attack and to have attempted to conceal the incident.

1997 December 29 Afghanistan's Islamic clerics are given permission by Taliban leaders to negotiate a peace agreement. Mullah Omar, the Taliban's supreme leader, and ousted president Burhanuddin Rabbani, both agree to the plan which requires each of the opposing factions to elect an Islamic scholar to the peace conference. It is announced by researchers at the University of Michigan, U.S.A., that a vaccine against the deadly Ebola virus has been developed in mice and guinea pigs. It is hoped the vaccine can be developed for human application. A report in Germany's "Der Spiegel" magazine reveals that a former East German athlete has laid charges against Dr Hans Joachim Wendler, her former physician, claiming he forced her to take massive doses of anabolic steroids that effectively turned her into a man. Heidi Krieger, the 1986 European shot-put champion, has had to undergo a sex-change operation after the drugs altered her physique and voice, and claims she has suffered psychological damage. She is now living as Andreas Krieger in Berlin.

1997 December 30 In the Kosovo province in Serbia, riot police break up a demonstration by ethnic Albanian students and teachers protesting against the authority's suspension of tutoring in the Albanian language. The protest is peaceful, but is broken up violently by the Serbian police and 16 people are injured. In the United Kingdom, Prime Minister Tony Blair announces the New Year's Honours List. Among those receiving an honorary title is the pop singer Elton John who receives a knighthood for his work in helping raise funds and awareness for AIDS charities. His record-breaking song "Candle in the Wind" has so far raised 20 million pounds sterling for the Princess of Wales Memorial Fund (see September 13). In Algeria, the official death toll of three separate attacks on civilians in the western province of Relizane is 78. The massacres, carried out by Muslim rebels, coincide with the first day of the holy month of Ramadan, which is historically a time of increased violence in the region.

1997 December 31 A siege on a prison near Sao Paulo, Brazil, ends after three days as armed police and troops storm the prison. Prison inmates had been holding more than 600 visitors and prison guards hostage, and had been demanding transfer to a less crowded prison. The decision to storm the prison was taken when the authorities became aware that their guards were being tortured by the prisoners. In Pakistan, Mohammad Rafiq Tarar is elected as president by a huge majority, having been nominated by the prime minister, Nawaz Sharif. Tarar is still fighting a legal battle over the legitimacy of his candidacy, as he has been accused of defaming the judiciary. If he is found guilty, he will be unseated and a new election will be fought.

1998 January 1 r. paulose Mar Gregorios Chair inaugurated Mahatma Gandhi University

1998 January 1 Helen Wills Moody, famous American tennis star of the 1920's and 1930's, dies at the age of 91 in California, U.S.A. She is remembered for transforming the women's tennis game, and for her victories in eight Wimbledon finals, four French singles championships, and seven U.S. Open finals. It is reported in the Cambodian press that Pol Pot has fled Cambodia to escape trial by an international court for crimes against humanity. Pol Pot, once the leader of the Khmer Rouge, is infamous for his "killing fields" regime, under which more than a million people were killed. Chechen President Aslan Maskhadov dismisses the country's separatist government and authorises First Deputy Prime Minister Shamil Basayev to form a new cabinet.

1998 January 2 In Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, the Israeli government, led by Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, is denounced by more than 100,000 university students protesting against budget proposals. Their street protests deepen the crisis already facing Netanyahu, following yesterday's announcement by Foreign Minister David Levy that he intends to resign. Official sources in Sudan announce the surrender of more than 1,700 rebel soldiers of the Sudan People's Liberation Army. It is hoped this move will end the violence which has claimed about 1.3 million lives since the current phase of Sudan's civil war began in 1983.

1998 January 3 Across France, there are violent clashes between rioters and police as discontent over welfare payments continues. Protesters are demanding a bonus because benefit payments have failed to keep pace with inflation. Employment Minister Martine Aubry condemns the demonstrations, which began during New Year celebrations and show no sign of abating. The problems stem from the government's attempts to meet the economic criteria for European Monetary Union, which have reduced the money available for benefit payments.

1998 January 4 Daniel arap Moi is declared the winner of the elections in Kenya and will serve his fifth term in office as president. His Kenya African Union party (KANU) secures victory in a controversial election, with Moi's opposition accusing him and his party of corruption and violence (see December 21, 1997). The Ulster Defence Association and the Ulster Freedom Fighters announce their withdrawal from participation in the Northern Ireland peace talks following the vote against participation by Loyalist prisoners in the Maze prison, near Belfast.

1998 January 5 American singer-songwriter and politician Sonny Bono dies in a skiing accident in California, U.S.A., aged 62. Bono is best remembered as part of the hippie duo "Sonny and Cher" and for their international chart-topping song "I Got You Babe", (1965). Bono was a prolific songwriter, whose songs were recorded by many artists, including Frank Sinatra. Bono took several acting roles before entering politics in 1988. He was elected a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives in 1994. Former American civil servant Valdas Adamkus, aged 71, is elected president of Lithuania, despite having returned to his country of birth only three months ago. Adamkus lived and worked in the U.S. throughout his adult life, and had to fight a court battle in order to be permitted to stand for election. He narrowly defeats Arturas Paulauskas, by a margin of 0.74 per cent of valid ballots. American adventurer Steve Fossett fails in his fourth attempt to become the first aviator to circumnavigate the world non-stop in a hot-air balloon. Fossett's bid ends when he is forced to land in southern Russia, having completed only a third of his journey.

1998 January 6 In Denmark, the Little Mermaid statue on Copenhagen's waterfront is decapitated by vandals. The police investigation includes an underwater search for the missing head. The statue, inspired by a Hans Christian Andersen story, is regarded as a national symbol by the Danes. The statue's original head was sawn off in 1964 and never recovered. At a meeting of Hong Kong's Executive Council, it is decided that the island will end its policy of granting a port of first asylum to the Vietnamese boat people. Asylum seekers are now considered to be economic migrants.

1998 January 7 In the United Kingdom, a freak tornado devastates Selsey, a town in Sussex. The tornado brings with it hail, many lightning strikes, and winds reaching 160 kilometres per hour. More than one thousand homes are severely damaged, but only two people suffer injury. The Iranian president, Mohammad Khatami, hints at a possible renewal of relations between Iran and the U.S. in an unprecedented televised interview which is broadcast on the Cable News Network. Relations between the two countries have been strained since the Islamic revolution in 1979, during which 52 U.S. diplomats were held hostage in their embassy in Teheran for 444 days. Officials in Papua New Guinea announce that the worsening drought in the country has claimed 75 lives and left 1.2 million people in urgent need of water. It is Papua New Guinea's worst drought in 100 years. Spanish police in Santa Cruz de Tenerife prevent the ritual suicide of a religious sect who believe that the world will end at 8 p.m. tomorrow. German psychologist Heide Fittkau-Garte is arrested in Tenerife and charged with attempting to induce suicide. Her followers, 29 Germans and a Spaniard, had planned to poison themselves on the summit of Mount Teide in the expectation of being transported from there by spaceship to another planet. They will be held "for their own protection" until at least 8 p.m. tomorrow. The sect may be an offshoot of the Order of the Solar Temple, a Swiss-based cult responsible for several mass suicides this decade.

1998 January 8 In Indonesia, the financial crisis deepens as the currency, the rupiah, plunges to a new low, its value falling to less than a quarter of its July 1997 rate. Shops are crowded as people buy food amid rumours that the cost of rice will double. Some banks run out of cash because so many people are withdrawing their savings. The 1997 Confectionery Market Review reveals that the United Kingdom consumes more sweets and chocolate than any other country. According to the review, people in the UK consume 16 kilograms of confectionery per head each year, far more than the U.S.A. with 10 kilograms and Japan at 3 kilograms.

1998 January 9 The sawn-off head of the Little Mermaid statue is left outside a Copenhagen television station by a hooded man. Danish police cannot identify the vandals. However, a radical feminist group earlier claimed responsibility for the statue's decapitation, stating that they had taken the head as a protest against male hostility toward women (see also January 6). Mo Mowlam, the UK's secretary of state for Northern Ireland, visits the Maze prison, near Belfast, in an attempt to salvage the Northern Irish peace process which has become uncertain following the murder of Billy Wright, a militant loyalist (see December 27). She holds an unprecedented discussion with loyalist prisoners, who are threatening to withdraw their support for the Ulster Democratic Party in the peace negotiations. As a result, the Ulster Freedom Fighters and Ulster Defence Association agree to back the UDP in multi-party talks scheduled to resume on January 12. Michael Tippett, one of the UK's most important contemporary composers, dies at his home in London, aged 93.

1998 January 10 At least 47 people are killed as an earthquake strikes near the Great Wall of China, north of Peking. More than 10,000 people are injured in the quake, which measures 6.2 on the Richter scale. Tens of thousands of Chinese people lose their homes and face a night without shelter in temperatures as low as minus 20 degrees Celsius. The death toll is expected to rise. In Montreal, Canada, 4,000 soldiers help hundreds of residents abandon their homes for temporary shelters in local schools and community centres possessing generators. They are typical of the 3 million people left without electricity in the aftermath of North America's worst ice-storm on record. Thousands of electricity pylons have been crushed under the weight of ice. Airports and railways are closed. At least 10 people have been killed in the storm.

1998 January 11 In Slupsk, Poland, hundreds of youths riot in protest against the alleged police killing of a 14-year-old boy. The boy died on January 10 during clashes between police and fans after a basketball game. The rioters began their protest after suggestions by the police that the boy had hurt himself running into a post. In India, Sonia Gandhi, Italian-born widow of the former Indian prime minister Rajiv Gandhi, begins an eight-week electoral campaign in Sriperumbudur, the town where her husband was assassinated in 1991. Speaking in English, she urges a crowd of about 15,000 to support India's Congress Party. It is a rare public appearance by Gandhi, who is not standing for office. Opinions are divided whether her intervention will prevent further defections by Congress supporters to other political parties such as the Hindu fundamentalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). The BJP are expected to top the poll in February's general election.

1998 January 12 Thousands of Shi'ite Muslims riot in Lahore, Pakistan, smashing cars, burning buildings, and attempting to storm the Punjab provincial parliament. Their action is in protest at yesterday's massacre of 24 Shi'ites at prayer by members of a militant Sunni Muslim group, the Warriors of Jhangvi. The Sunni group has threatened further attacks on the minority Shi'ite community. Nineteen members of the Council of Europe sign a protocol prohibiting attempts to "create human beings genetically identical to another human being, whether living or dead.". Germany and the United Kingdom are not signatories to this ban on human cloning. Japan's Prime Minister Ryutaro Hashimoto issues an apology to the United Kingdom for Japan's treatment of UK prisoners during World War II. The apology is hailed by UK Prime Minister Tony Blair as a significant step toward an era of improved relations. However, is condemned by UK war veterans as an "insult". The veterans are seeking financial compensation for each prisoner of war for the trauma they suffered.

1998 January 13 In Tokyo, a gunman enters the Stock Exchange and takes hostage the deputy controller in protest against the government's management of the economy, and its plans for financial reform. Tetsuo Itagaki, a right-wing extremist, is arrested after a five-hour siege and his hostage is released unharmed. The body of a United Kingdom victim of the Luxor massacre is finally located in Germany. Karina Turner's body had been missing since her murder by Islamic militants in Egypt. An international search unravelled the mistaken identification of her body. She will be buried with her mother and daughter, who were also victims of the massacre (see November 17, 1997). In Tenerife, Spanish police frustrate a mass suicide bid by members of a religious cult for the second time this week. Nineteen people, including three children, are held for a few hours for their own safety. (See January 7.)

1998 January 14 In the Yugoslav republic of Montenegro, at least 20 people are hurt as protesters and police clash. More than 8,000 people demonstrate in Podgorica in support of the outgoing president Momir Bulatovic. Some are involved in skirmishes with the police, who disperse the crowds with tear gas. Bulatovic has accused his successor, Milo Djukanovic, of rigging the election that ousted him from power. In Cuba, a 30-minute sermon by a Cardinal Jaime Ortega, archbishop of Havana, is broadcast on state-controlled television. It is the first time a Roman Catholic broadcast had been permitted by President Castro's government for more than forty years.

1998 January 15 Officials in Algeria agree to a visit by a delegation of European Union representatives from Luxembourg, the United Kingdom, and Austria. The EU delegation hopes to find ways in which they can help end Algeria's civil war, which began in January, 1992. Nasa officials announce that John Glenn, the first American to orbit the earth, is to return to space in October on a 10-day mission aboard the "Discovery" shuttle. Glenn, who will be 77 years old when the mission is launched, will become the world's oldest astronaut. His time in space will be used to monitor the effect of weightlessness on an older body.

1998 January 16 The Constitutional Court in Turkey rules that the country's largest parliamentary party, the pro-Islamist Welfare Party, must be shut down because it has contravened Turkey's strict secular rules. It also orders the expulsion of six Welfare deputies from parliament and prohibits their involvement in political activity for five years. Many countries see this action as a threat to democratic pluralism and freedom of expression in Turkey. Welfare's assets will automatically go to the treasury. A six-year custody dispute between Italy and Austria ends as the mummified remains of a Bronze Age man are returned to Italy. Both countries had claimed ownership of the 5,300-year-old mummy. The body had lain undisturbed in a glacier in the Dolomites on the Austro-Italian border until revealed by a thaw in 1991. Although found metres inside Italy, the body was taken to Innsbruck University, Austria, for scientific examination. The mummy will go on display in Bolzano archaeology museum from March 28. At least 86 people are killed in Kenya as torrential rain causes widespread flooding. The rains, attributed to the El Nino weather phenomenon, destroy many major transport links. Thousands of people are without fresh water and hundreds are made homeless. The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies says that two months of flooding have created ideal conditions for the spread of the haemorrhagic Rift Valley fever and that the disease may be out of control. At least 450 people have died of this disease in North Eastern Province.

1998 January 17 In Washington, U.S.A., Bill Clinton becomes the first U.S. president to testify as a defendant in a legal action. He is accused by Paula Jones of sexually harassing her in 1991, when he was governor of the state of Arkansas and she was a state secretary. Clinton gives his deposition prior to the trial which is scheduled to begin on May 27. In London, more than 50 Gulf War veterans march in protest to the Ministry of Defence building to return the medals they won for their service. At a meeting with Lord Gilbert, the defence procurement minister, they demand an independent inquiry into Gulf War Syndrome, a variety of illnesses that are alleged to afflict more than 6,000 Gulf veterans, and which have already cost around 160 lives. Their protest coincides with the seventh anniversary of the outbreak of the war.

1998 January 18 In Guyana, President Janet Jagan signs an accord with the main opposition leader, Desmond Hoyte, which guarantees reforms to allow for new elections in 2000, as well as a reform of the constitution and an audit of the last election results. It is hoped that the agreement will end the violence that has been rife in the capital, Georgetown, since last month's elections began. Bosnia's Serb parliament elect a new, moderate, coalition government, to be led by incoming prime minister, Milorad Dodik. It is hoped that the new government will help work toward building a stable peace in Bosnia. In Amman, Jordan, Hikmet al-Hajou, deputy chief of mission for the Iraqi embassy, his wife, and six associates are stabbed to death by unknown assailants. The murders heighten the tension between Iraq and Jordan which followed the execution of four Jordanian students in Baghdad last December.

1998 January 19 In California, U.S.A., the Golden Globe Awards are announced at a ceremony in Hollywood. Best dramatic actress award goes to Dame Judy Dench of the United Kingdom for her portrayal of Queen Victoria in "Mrs. Brown". American Peter Fonda wins the best actor award for his part in "Ulee's Gold", which won the best film category. The disaster epic "Titanic" wins best drama, best director (James Cameron), best original score, and best original song. Titanic is believed to be the most expensive film ever made. President Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe halts his plans to forcibly acquire 1,400 white-owned farms because of conditions imposed upon his government by the World Bank and the European Union. Mugabe secures a loan from both organizations on condition that he guarantees compensation for all farmers affected by his land reforms (see November 19, 1997). Across America, people celebrate Martin Luther King Day, commemorating the black civil rights leader assassinated thirty years ago. Schools, banks, and businesses close, and the New York stock exchange markets are shuttered for the day. A parade in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, ends in tragedy as a gunman opens fire on the crowd. One man is killed in the shooting and three children are badly injured. Police do not believe the attack to be racially motivated, as both the gunman and his victims were black.

1998 January 20 American television star Oprah Winfrey appears in court in Texas, U.S.A. Winfrey is being sued for libel by the American beef industry, led by Paul Engler, for comments she made in 1996 during her talk show which questioned the safety of eating beef and the dangers associated with the cattle disease, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). North Korea's agricultural commission reveals the country is in desperate need of international help following the failure of the harvest in 1997. Cha Limsok, speaking on behalf of the commission, admits that the drought of the previous summer has produced famine conditions in the country. It is the first time North Korea has revealed such statistics to the international community. In Harare, Zimbabwe, as riots against the government continue for a second day, President Robert Mugabe deploys government troops to disperse demonstrators. The protesters, angry that the government continues to raise the price of the maize meal, loot and burn shops. Government troops are under orders to shoot rioters in what has become the country's worst civil unrest since it gained independence in 1980.

1998 January 21 Thousands of Cubans line the streets of Havana, Cuba, to welcome Pope John Paul II, the first pope to visit the country. President Fidel Castro has, in recent years, relaxed prohibition laws on religion in his communist country. It is understood that Castro hopes the pope's visit will help alter the U.S. stance toward Cuba, and the pope hints his disapproval of the U.S. embargo on Cuban goods. The World Wide Fund for Nature announces that the tiger is threatened with imminent extinction if nothing is done to protect its freedom and habitat. Experts believe only 20 to 25 South China tigers exist in the wild. This species is especially endangered by the recent increased demand for Chinese traditional medicines, which contain tiger body parts. Tigers are now worth large sums of money to poachers. In Bangkok, more than 2,000 workers riot for 12 hours outside their car factory in a protest over pay. The demonstration becomes violent as workers throw stones, bottles, and petrol bombs at the police, who eventually break up the protest and arrest 58 of the rioters.

1998 January 22 In Santa Clara, Cuba, Pope John Paul II addresses more than 40,000 people at the first of four open-air masses he will hold during his five-day visit to the country. He criticises Cuba's high abortion rate, lax moral values, and the lack of Catholic schools. He later has a 50-minute meeting with President Fidel Castro. In the Algerian parliament, Prime Minister Ahmed Ouyahia , answering questions about the alleged 1,000 killings during Ramadan, claims that the death toll in the county's civil war is about 26,500. However, many Western observers believe the total is between 60,000 and 80,000, and are surprised at the minister's recent rejection of humanitarian aid offered by delegates from the European Union. The U.S. government accepts a plea of guilty from the Unabomber, Theodore Kaczynski, in exchange for the withdrawal of the death penalty. Paranoid schizophrenic Kaczynski, 55, will not now face trial, and is expected to be sentenced to life imprisonment for a bizarre bombing campaign that spanned nearly twenty years. He claimed his actions were an attempt to stem the encroachment of technology. Indonesia's currency falls to a new low for the third consecutive day. The government's Manpower Ministry predicts that unemployment in the country will increase by I million to 3.7 million people by the end of the year. About 200 students demonstrate at a rally in Jakarta, calling for President Suharto to resign and for Megawati Sukarnoputri, daughter of the late President Sukano, to replace him.

1998 January 23 It is announced that French engineer Guy Negre has perfected a silent, odour-free car engine which has zero pollution. Once started, using the air-petrol mixture favoured by conventional engines, Negre's version runs on compressed air alone. The prototype vehicle runs for 10 hours on a tank of compressed air, achieving a top speed of 96 kilometres per hour. A version of Negre's vehicle, designed by an Italian company, will go into mass production in Mexico next month. Mexico City, the most polluted city in the world, intends to replace its 87,00 petrol and diesel taxis and delivery vehicles with zero-pollution taxis at a rate of 40,000 a year. In Athens, restoration of the temple of Athena Nike at the entrance to the Acropolis begins. Greek archaeologists will replace the original frieze, damaged by pollution and in danger of collapsing, with a cement copy. The original will be housed in a new museum. At least 11 people die as an avalanche buries 35, including 26 teenagers and their 6 teachers, near the southern Alpine resort of Les Orres, south of Grenoble, France. Rescue dogs locate 18 survivors who were buried in the snow for several hours. Six others are still missing.

1998 January 24 Pope John Paul II tells an audience of 200,000 people in Santiago de Cuba, "The Church calls everyone to make faith a reality in their lives as the best path ... for attaining true freedom, which includes the recognition of human rights and social justice." (See also January 22). In India, the Congress Party apologises in its general election manifesto for the 1992 destruction of the Ayodhya Mosque. The action is seen as an attempt to attract the Muslim vote. Narasimha Rao, prime minister at the time of the demolition, will be not be a candidate in the forthcoming general election.

1998 January 25 The Queen Mother is admitted to the King Edward VII Hospital in London for surgery to replace her left hip, fractured in a fall on Sunday. Thirteen people die as a lorry bomb explodes at Sri Lanka's holiest Buddhist shrine, Dalada Maligawa, in Kandy. The three bombers, believed to belong to the Tamil Tigers, are killed in the explosion. The inner shrine, containing a tooth said to belong to the Buddha, is undamaged. The Sri Lankan government says it will not cancel celebrations marking the fiftieth anniversary of the country's independence on 4 February.

1998 January 26 Shinichi Suzuki, the Japanese violinist and educator, dies at the age of 99. Suzuki developed revolutionary theories about teaching music. Starting at the age of two or three, his pupils learned to play the violin, piano, or cello by ear, through example and constant repetition, in much the same way as they learned to speak. The Suzuki Method is now used in more than 40 countries, and many eminent musicians claim Suzuki training. The Ulster Democratic Party, political representatives of the Ulster Defence Association and the Ulster Freedom Fighters, walks out of cross-party talks in Northern Ireland. Mo Mowlam, UK Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, says the UDP will have to show "by word and deed" that they are committed to the peace process. David Andrews, the Irish foreign minister, had said that contact would be maintained with the UDP and that the peace talks would not collapse.

1998 January 27 U.S. President Bill Clinton's annual State of the Union address is overshadowed by frenzied international media speculation about whether he had an improper relationship with a former member of his White House staff, Monica Lewinsky, and later told her to lie about it. Hillary Rodham Clinton claims on television that the allegations of a cover-up are part of a "vast rightwing conspiracy" against her husband.

1998 January 28 As Iraqi president Saddam Hussein continues to obstruct United Nations weapons inspectors in their search for weapons of mass destruction, U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright sets off for Europe and the Middle East on a diplomatic initiative to discuss possible military retaliation against Iraq. A former South African policeman, Daniel Bosman, tells the Truth Commission in Johannesburg that police suppressed evidence proving that Winnie Madikizela Mandela had given a false alibi at her trial for the murder of 14-year old Stompie Seipei Moeketsie, in 1991. Telephone taps placed Mrs. Mandela in Soweto, not Brandfort, during the crucial period in 1988. Transcripts of her calls were withheld at her trial. Other evidence suggests that the police may have killed a white officer in order to protect Mrs. Mandela. In Madras, India, 26 Tamil Tiger militants are sentenced to death for their part in the 1991 assassination of Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi.

1998 January,29 the 84th Birthday of His Holiness Baselios Mar Thoma Mathes II,theCatholicos of the East is celebrated in Kottayam

1998 January 29 Rescuers find 31 bodies after the town of Choco in the Peruvian Andes is hit by an avalanche of mud as a river bursts its banks. The freak rains causing the flooding are blamed on the El Nino weather phenomenon. In Brazzaville, capital of the Republic of Congo, health officials announce they will need a further three weeks to exhume and re-bury hundreds of the city's civil war dead. Three cosmonauts, two Russian and one French, blast into space from the Baikonur cosmodrome, in Russia. Their mission is to link up with the Mir space station and perform essential repairs. The American space shuttle Endeavour, which has been attached to Mir for the last five days, undocks and begins its journey back to Earth. Shell UK Exploration and Production announce plans to cut up their 14,500-metric-ton oil-storage buoy, Brent Spar, to support a ferry quay in Mekjarvik, Norway. Two-and-a-half years ago, a vigorous campaign by the environmental group Greenpeace prevented Shell from dumping the unwanted Brent Spar in the Atlantic Ocean. At Sabina Park in Kingston, Jamaica, the first 1998 Test cricket match between England and the West Indies is abandoned because of a substandard pitch. Play is halted after several batsmen are hit due to unpredictable bounces of the ball. The rest of the series of matches will now be played in Trinidad.

1998 January 30 Ethnic tensions are rising as economic problems continue in Indonesia. Chinese Indonesians, descended from immigrants two or more generations ago, comprise less than 3 per cent of the population. However, because they control almost 70 per cent of the economy, Chinese Indonesians are being blamed for the price rises which followed the fall in the value of the rupiah and their shops are coming under attack. President Suharto is quoted in the Jakarta Post warning of the dangers of unrest, a reference to the unrest of thirty years ago in which half a million people died. A Russian government commission recommends that the remains of Czar Nicholas II and his family be buried in St. Petersburg on 17 July, the eightieth anniversary of their execution by Bolshevik revolutionaries. Moscow and Yekaterinburg had also claimed the right to house the royal remains. President Yeltsin is expected to accept the commission's recommendations next month. In Australia, two white government ministers, both doctors, attend the televised ritual circumcision of seven-year old Nathan Djerruka, son of the chairman of the Aboriginal parliament. Aboriginal Affairs Minister John Herron and Health Minister Michael Wooldridge wear tribal paint at the ceremony which they hoped would promote understanding between black and white cultures in Australia. Instead, they have generated a controversy about whether or not the custom constitutes child abuse, and should be banned.

1998 January 31 In London, U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, seeking a solution to the Iraqi question, warns that "the time for diplomacy is running out". UK Prime Minister Tony Blair and Foreign Secretary Robin Cook agree that Saddam Hussein must be stopped and do not rule out military action. France and Russia are believed to favour a diplomatic solution

1998 February 1 In Seville, Spain, more than 400,000 people march in silent protest against the murders of a Popular Party councillor and his wife. Alberto Jimenez-Becerril and Ascension Garcia Ortiz were murdered on January 30 by the Basque terrorist group E.T.A. The men's final of the Australian Open tennis tournament is won in Melbourne by Petr Korda of the Czech Republic. Korda beats Chilean Marcelo Rios in three sets to take his first ever Grand Slam title.

1998 February 2 In Canberra, Australia, 152 delegates meet for the opening of the Constitutional Convention. The convention, scheduled to last for two weeks, will decide whether the country will become a republic, independent of the British monarchy, and set out ways in which such a republic might be implemented. At least 104 people are feared dead in the Philippines after a DC-9 jet, travelling from Manila to Cagayan de Oro, crashes in southern Mindanao. Thousands of people riot on the islands of Java and Sulawesi in Indonesia. Shops and houses are attacked by angry protesters demonstrating against rising food and fuel prices. Riot police fire warning shots to disperse youths in Unjungpadang, Sulawesi, and 29 people are arrested in Pasuruan in eastern Java. (See also January 30.)

1998 February 3 In Texas, U.S.A., Karla Faye Tucker becomes the first woman to be executed in the state since the American Civil War (1861-1865). Tucker, aged 38, was convicted of the murders of Jerry Lynn Dean and Deborah Thornton in 1983. She turned to Christianity during her 13 years on Death Row. Widespread protests were held against the decision to execute her. Tucker is put to death by lethal injection. In Cavalese, Italy, a cable car plummets 75 metres to the ground when the tail fin of a U.S. military aircraft slices through the wires of the cable car system. All 20 passengers in the car are killed. The EA-6B Prowler jet, stationed at the U.S. base in Aviano, is attached to the NATO mission in Bosnia. The pilot and crew are unhurt as the pilot makes an emergency landing at the airfield. Two separate inquiries are launched to uncover the cause of the accident.

1998 February 4 Sri Lanka celebrates the fiftieth anniversary of its independence with a ceremony in its capital, Colombo, attended by Charles, Prince of Wales. The event is overshadowed by continuing violence around the capital between government troops and the Tamil Tigers, in which 15 people are injured. (See also January 25.) More than 4,000 people are feared dead as an earthquake devastates the northern province of Takhar, in Afghanistan. The quake, measuring 6.1 on the Richter scale, makes 15,000 people homeless. Extremely cold weather and poor communications are hampering rescue efforts. Bosnia's parliament fails to meet the internationally imposed deadline to agree on a new flag for their divided country. Carlos Westendorp, representing the international community, steps in to end the dispute between rival Serb, Muslim, and Croat factions. Westendorp chooses a yellow triangle with a line of white stars on a blue background. In Armenia, President Levon Ter-Petrosyan resigns, prompting fears that the dispute over Nagorno-Karabakh, an area in neighbouring Azerbaijan, may intensify. In 1923, the Soviet government gave Nagorno-Karabakh to Azerbaijan. Until the late 1980's, the majority of people in Nagorno-Karabakh were Armenians. In 1988, they demanded the region become part of Armenia. The issue has never been resolved, in spite of a war that claimed more than 25,000 lives. It is thought that the departure of the moderate Ter-Petrosyan will make way for hardliners who refuse to compromise over this issue.

1998 February 5 German unemployment levels reach their highest total since World War II (1939-1945). The figure is put at 4.82 million people, and sparks off a spate of protests throughout the country. The new statistics are seen as a threat to Chancellor Helmut Kohl's chance of victory in the general elections scheduled to be held in September. In Washington, U.S.A., the United Kingdom Prime Minister Tony Blair announces that American entertainer Bob Hope is to receive an honorary knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II. Hope, aged 94, will receive the award in recognition of his 60-year-long career on stage and screen, and for his services in entertaining the Allied troops during World War II (1939-1945).

1998 February 6 In the United Kingdom, a special service is held Manchester Cathedral in remembrance of those who were killed in the Munich air disaster on February 6, 1958. The crash claimed the lives of eight Manchester United football team players and 15 other passengers. The commemoration of its fortieth anniversary is attended by players, officials of the game, and thousands of fans. The three hot-air balloonists aboard Breitling Orbiter 2 break a second world record, in spite of failing in their attempt to circumnavigate the globe. The team sets a new record for the longest nonstop unrefuelled flight. On February 3, the team broke the world record for the longest time spent in the air by a balloon. In Colombo, Sri Lanka, nine people are killed and at least 15 are injured when a suicide bomber detonates a device at a checkpoint in the commercial district of Slave Island. Five air force members are killed, as well as the bomber and her three accomplices. In Ajaccio, Corsica, Claude Erignac, the regional prefect of Corsica, and the highest representative of the French government on the island, is shot dead. Erignac is the first government official to be killed on the island in 30 years. American Carl Wilson, founder of the Beach Boys and lead guitarist for the group, dies at the age of 51, in Los Angeles. Wilson formed the band in 1961 and sang lead vocals on one of their biggest hits, "Good Vibrations". He had been suffering from lung cancer for more than a year.

1998 February 7 Thousands of people demonstrate in the town of Passau, Germany, against the meeting of an extreme-right nationalist party. Their protest ends in violence as police fail to break up clashes between the demonstrators and nationalist NPD supporters. Thirty-seven arrests are made and two dangerous weapons are seized by police. Imelda Marcos announces she will be a candidate for the presidency of the Philippines in the May elections. Marcos, widow of Filipino dictator Ferdinand Marcos, pledges to use the Marcos wealth to bail the Philippines out of its financial crisis, and vows to "bring back dignity, decency and leadership" to the country. The supreme court recently upheld a 12-year prison term against Marcos for corruption. Electoral success would enable her to arrange a presidential pardon. The team aboard the Breitling Orbiter hot-air balloon end their record-breaking journey as they land in a village north of the capital Yangon, Burma, after 10 days in the air. (See Februry 6.)

1998 February 8 More than 1,000 anti-Nazi demonstrators march in Magdeburg, eastern Germany, on the first anniversary of the death of Frank Boettcher. Boettcher was attacked and fatally wounded by a group of neo-Nazi youths. The protesters break windows and throw rocks as they march, but police prevent the outbreak of anti-Nazi violence. Enoch Powell, one of the most outspoken British politicians this century, dies at the age of 85 at a hospital in London. Tributes to him are paid by United Kingdom Prime Minister Tony Blair and a former prime minister, Baroness Margaret Thatcher. Powell is remembered as a controversial and dedicated politician.

1998 February 9 Charles, Prince of Wales, becomes the first member of the British Royal Family to visit the Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan. He has an audience with King Jigme Singye Wangchuk, and will spend four days in the country. Bhutan was recently condemned in an Amnesty International report, and civil rights activists hope that Prince Charles will attempt to address human rights issues with the king. In the province of Batna, eastern Algeria, a bomb explodes injuring at least 37 people. The bombing coincides with the second day of a visit by European diplomats who are attempting to initiate talks that will end the massacres that began six years ago. The president of Georgia, Eduard Shevardnadze, escapes unhurt from an assassination attempt in the capital, Tbilisi. Anti-tank grenades and guns are fired at his presidential motorcade, killing one of his bodyguards and injuring two others. An attacker is also killed in the assault.

1998 February 10 In Sierra Leone, fighting continues between the ECOMOG peacekeeping force and the military junta which overthrew the elected government in May, 1997. Hundreds of civilians seek shelter in the centre of the capital, Freetown, in an attempt to escape fighting on the outskirts of the city. It is reported that at least 12 civilians have been killed in the conflict. The El Nino weather phenomenon is blamed for 13 deaths in Mexico as flash floods and mudslides wreak havoc throughout Latin America.

1998 February 11 At least 67 Bolivians die in incidents blamed on the El Nino weather pattern. Michael Owen becomes England's youngest international football player this century with his debut against Chile in a friendly match played at Wembley, London. Owen, aged 18 years and 59 days, is praised by team manager Glen Hoddle for his game. England lose the match 2-0. At least fifty people are feared drowned in a river 80 kilometres north of Freetown as they flee the battle raging in Sierra Leone's capital. It is thought that up to 7,000 more refugees may be attempting to flee the city by boat as Nigerian forces continue their attempt to oust the ruling military junta (see also February 10). In Turkey, all of the country's 79 casinos are permanently closed by order of the government. The ban was approved by parliament in August 1997, in an attempt to combat criminal activity. Many oppose the ban, believing it will deprive Turkey of millions of dollars of tourist revenue, and that illegal gambling will replace the casinos.

1998 February 12 General Al-Zubeir Mohammed Saleh, vice-president of Sudan, is killed in a plane crash which also claims the lives of at least two other senior government officials. The crash, thought to have been caused by bad weather, is regarded as a major setback in bringing the Sudanese civil war to an end. In Cuba, Fidel Castro's government announces its intention to release more than 200 prisoners, many of them political detainees. The decision follows the Pope's visit to the country in January, during which he appealed to Castro for clemency. (See also January 21). The original lyrics to Elton John's record-breaking tribute song to Princess Diana, "Candle in the Wind 1997", raises 442,500 U.S. dollars at an auction in Los Angeles. It is bought by the Lund Foundation, a nonprofit group established by Walt Disney's daughter, Sharon Lund. The money raised by the sale is to go to the Children's Hospital in Los Angeles.

1998 February 13 It is announced that NASA aircraft using radar imaging, have discovered ancient temple sites in western Cambodia, near the Angkor Wat group of temples. Angkor flourished from the early 800's to the 1400's. However, it is thought that the new discovery predates other finds in the area by as much as 300 years. The military junta that has occupied Freetown, the capital of Sierra Leone, for nine months is overpowered by Nigerian peacekeeping forces and deposed. The ECOMOG troops take control of more than 90 per cent of the capital, claiming victory in a battle that has cost many hundreds of lives since it began in early February, 1998. (See also February 10 and 11.)

1998 February 14 In India, more than 50 people are killed and 32 others are injured as a series of bombs explode in Coimbatore city in Tamil Nadu state. The attack coincides with the end of election campaigning for seats in the federal parliament's lower house, the Lok Sabha. Polling is due to begin on February 16. Hundreds of people riot on the island of Java in Indonesia as protests continue against rising food prices. The rioters target shops run by the country's minority Chinese citizens, who they blame for the rise in food costs brought about by the worsening economic crisis in Indonesia. Three people are killed in the protests, and more than 150 arrests are made. The riots come after President Suharto's order on February 12 to his armed forces to take "firm action without hesitation" against those found breaking the law. (See also February 2, January 30). The Museum of New Zealand is opened in Wellington, New Zealand, in front of tens of thousands of well-wishers. The museum, which has taken 5 years to build, houses the country's treasures and has been nicknamed Te Papa (Our Place). In Cameroon's capital, Yaounde, two petroleum-carrying tanker trains collide and spill their contents. Hours later, more than 120 people, most of whom were collecting the spilled fuel, die as a burning cigarette ignites the petrol. Many more are injured in the country's worst disaster for more than a decade.

1998 February 15 In Cyprus, Glafcos Clerides wins reelection to the post of president. He defeats his nearest opponent, George Iacovou, and will now take responsibility for heading talks on the possibility of reunifying Cyprus and gaining EU membership for the island. In Gateshead, United Kingdom, a steel sculpture weighing 200 metric tons and standing 20 metres high is erected. The "Angel of the North" sculpture was designed by Antony Gormley to last for at least 100 years. It has a wingspan of 52.5 metres, and will turn a rich brown colour as the metal is oxidized. It is the United Kingdom's biggest sculpture.

1998 February 16 In Taipei, Taiwan, at least 202 people are feared dead as an airliner crashes at Chiang Kai-shek International Airport. The jet, returning from Bali in Indonesia, is thought to have got into difficulty because of poor visibility, and comes down short of the runway before crashing into a row of houses. The forestry minister for Indonesia announces that 895 bush fires have been recorded on the island of Borneo, and the numbers are rapidly growing. Djamaludin Suryohadikusumo's announcement raises fears that the smog that blanketed much of southeast Asia in 1997 may return. The government send in fire-fighting aircraft in an attempt to extinguish the spreading flames. A baby boy conceived in 1990 is born in a Los Angeles hospital, becoming the oldest-known frozen embryo to be successfully carried to full-term. Billy, a twin to his eight-year-old brother, developed from an embryo that was frozen more than seven years ago, before being successfully thawed and implanted into his mother's womb. Billy's parents underwent treatment for infertility in 1990.

1998 February 17 In Tehran, Iran, a team of American wrestlers become the first U.S. athletes to compete in the country since the 1979 Islamic revolution. Their presence at the Takhti Cup wrestling competition is seen as an attempt to improve Iranian-American relations. The Australian government announces its intention to preserve a 40-year-old Antarctic hut, situated at the Mawson Station base 3,400 miles from Australia. The hut has a "Sistine ceiling" made up of hundreds of pin-up photographs, and is a legacy of the all-male expeditions once made to the Antarctic.

1998 February 18 Kenneth Kaunda, former president of Zambia, is charged with misprision of treason, as are his security chief Moyse Kaulungombe and 90 others suspected of complicity in the attempted coup of October 1997. The charge means that Kaunda is suspected of deliberately concealing his knowledge of a treasonable act, and holds a penalty of up to life imprisonment. Kaunda's hearing will be heard on February 27. Prisoners riot in the Mondelo Prison in Barranquilla, Colombia, resulting in the deaths of two inmates and a large number of injuries. The uprising begins with a disagreement between rival prison gangs, and ends with battles between inmates and guards armed with guns and knives. Chronic overcrowding in Colombian prisons is blamed for this latest breach of security, which comes only two weeks after a similar clash in Cucuta claimed six lives.

1998 February 19 Four United Nations military observers are kidnapped in the former Soviet republic of Georgia. Their abductors demand the release of seven people charged with the recent assassination attempt on President Eduard Shevardnadze (see February 9). In Las Vegas, U.S.A., two men are arrested on suspicion that they are in possession of a form of anthrax which they intend to use in terrorist attacks. Larry Wayne Harris and William Leavitt are apprehended in their car, which is found to contain up to ten bags marked "biological". Harris is known to have links with white supremacist groups in the U.S. In New York, bidding begins for 40,000 items which once belonged to the late Duke and Duchess of Windsor as the contents of their Paris home, now owned by Mohammed al Fayed, go up for auction. The auction is expected to attract fierce bidding, and its proceeds will go to the Dodi Fayed International Charitable Foundation, established after the death of Dodi Fayed and Diana, Princess of Wales, in August 1997.

1998 February 20 The United Nations Secretary-General, Kofi Annan, arrives in Baghdad, Iraq, for a last-ditch attempt to avert the outbreak of fighting in the Gulf. Annan meets with Tariq Aziz, Iraq's deputy prime minister, to plan a peaceful solution to the current crisis, which was generated by Saddam Hussein's refusal to allow UN inspectors to investigate his weapons sites. Archbishop Keith Rayner, head of the Anglican Church in Australia, symbolically washes the feet of two Aborigine bishops in apology for the actions of his church. He also formally apologises to Australian Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders for the loss of their "stolen generation". This refers to the children who were taken from indigenous families and forcibly assimilated into white society by the church and other authorities until as recently as the 1960's. In Algiers, capital of Algeria, three bombs explode within 24 hours, killing two people and injuring more than 40. The bombing attacks are blamed on Muslim rebel factions, and defy the widespread military offensive launched by the government.

1998 February 21 In Tasmania, the last of 33 sperm whales stranded on a beach in the northwestern region of the country dies. Rescuers were unable to help the whales because extreme bad weather prevented them reaching the animals. A bomb is safely detonated at the headquarters of the ruling Spanish Popular Party in Santander, northern Spain. The bomb, which is detonated in a controlled explosion, is believed to have been planted by the Basque separatist group E.T.A. In the United Kingdom, scientists at the Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, Oxford, announce to the Independent newspaper that dyslexia, a condition which affects reading ability, is hereditary. Their research into the condition reveals that almost all those dyslexics studied have three common genes, thus linking the condition with genetic makeup. It is thought that between five and ten per cent of children suffer from dyslexia-related problems.

1998 February 22 In the state of Uttar Pradesh, northern India, Atal Behari Vajpayee begins a "fast unto death" in protest against the expulsion of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) government in the state. Vajpayee, the BJP's prime ministerial candidate in the elections, begins his fast a day after his party's expulsion at the order of the state governor. The elections in India, which have been marred by widespread violence, are due to finish on March 7. Walter Salles receives the Golden Bear Award at the Berlin film festival as his work "Central do Brasil" (Central Station) is named best film. It is the first Latin American film to win a top award at a European festival for more than 15 years. The film also wins the best actress award for Fernanda Montenegro's performance.

1998 February 23 In Nagano, Japan, the 18th Winter Olympic Games are officially concluded with the handing over of the Olympic flag to the mayor of Salt Lake City. Salt Lake City, U.S.A., will host the 2002 Games. Germany emerged as overall winners in Nagano, with a total of 29 medals, 12 of them gold. In South Africa, the case brought against P. W. Botha by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission begins. Botha, charged with failing to appear before the Commission, makes a statement to the court near George, a town near his home, condemning the charges brought against him. He claims he made a private agreement with Archbishop Desmond Tutu that he would not have to appear before the Commission in person. The case is adjourned until mid-April. Indian Test cricketer Raman Lamba dies after spending three days in a coma in a hospital in Dhaka. He suffered severe brain injury after being struck on the head by a ball whilst fielding at short leg during a game in Dhaka on February 20. He was 38 years old. More than 35 people die as a series of tornadoes devastate the area in and around Orlando in Florida, U.S.A. At least 12 twisters hit the area during the storms, which have been attributed to the El Nino weather phenomenon, leaving hundreds homeless and more than 250 people injured. The storms, which saw winds reaching up to 400 kilometres per hour, are the worst tornado disaster in Florida's history.

1998 February 24 In London, the Court of Appeal overturns a conviction against a Somalian seaman made more than 45 years ago. Mahmood Hussein Mattan was sentenced to death for the murder of Lily Volpert in 1952, and hanged six weeks later. His name is cleared after the court hears evidence that the key witness in the trial was unreliable. Mattan is the first person in the United Kingdom to have their conviction quashed after being executed. Princess Margaret, sister of the United Kingdom's Queen Elizabeth II, suffers a stroke whilst on holiday on the island of Mustique in the Caribbean. It is understood that the attack is relatively mild, and that the Princess is expected to make a full recovery.

1998 February 25 A terrorist is overpowered by passengers of the plane he is hijacking in Diyarbakir, Turkey. The man takes over the flight from Adana to Ankara, and orders to pilot to continue to Iran, but stops in Diyarbakir to free 21 of the 62 passengers on board. Claiming to be carrying a bomb inside a teddy bear, he refuses to surrender but is eventually held by three passengers until security forces arrive. The Grammy Awards are announced at a ceremony in New York. The winners, selected by the American music industry, include Elton John, who is awarded the best male vocal prize for "Candle in the Wind, 1997", and Bob Dylan, who receives two Grammys. The late Sir Georg Solti is posthumously awarded his record-breaking thirty-first Grammy. The El Nino weather phenomenon causes further disruption as storms sweep across California, U.S.A., killing more than 10 people and destroying hundreds of homes. Torrential rains sweep away roads and create mudslides that bury houses and vehicles in Orange County and Santa Maria. Thousands are evacuated from their homes, and railway routes and schools are closed. Kim Dae Jung is sworn in as president of South Korea at a ceremony in Seoul attended by more than 40,000 spectators, among them the superstar Michael Jackson. His inauguration marks the swing of power to the opposition for the first time in 50 years. (See also December 18, 1997). Three United Nations observers who were taken hostage earlier this month are released after President Eduard Shevardnadze agrees to talks with the kidnappers' representatives. The kidnappers, having already released one of the hostages earlier in the week, agree to free the officials unharmed prior to a meeting to be held in Tbilisi. (See also February 19).

1998 February 26 In Texas, U.S.A., celebrity Oprah Winfrey wins the court case brought against her by Texan cattlemen. Winfrey was sued under Texas's controversial food defamation laws. Her opponents claimed damages of almost 11 million U.S. dollars because her disparaging remarks about American beef allegedly sent beef prices to a 10-year low (see also January 20). In northern regions of South America the last total solar eclipse this century is watched as the sun is blocked out at midday. The phenomenon is visible from northern Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, and northern areas of the Caribbean and casts a 150-kilometre-wide shadow, during the four minutes of total darkness it imposes.

1998 February 27 An investigation into the cause of the collision of a U.S. air force jet into a cable-car in the Dolomites mountains, Italy, reveals that pilot error was to blame. The pilot, Captain Richard Ashby, is expected to face a court-martial. (See also February 3). The Neustadt International Prize for Literature for 1998 is awarded to Nuruddin Farah of Somalia. The 40,000-U.S-dollars prize is awarded by World Literature Today, a journal produced by the University of Oklahoma. Archaelogists open a 2,600-year-old basalt sarcophagus at the Abu Sir necropolis, west of Cairo, Egypt. The tomb, which has lain undisturbed since it was sealed, contains the mummified body of Iufaa, a Pharaonic priest. It is hoped that the tomb will provide unique insights into the burial practices and religious beliefs during the Persian period of Egyptian history.

1998 February 28 In a remote valley north of Cusco, Peru, a mudslide caused by El Nino rainstorms sweeps away more than 50 labourers who are working on the construction of a canal in the Aobamba valley. The mudslide and floods that followed it are thought to have killed all the labourers, and also cut off electrical supplies and rail links. More than 1,000 supporters of the National Front march through Marseilles, France, in a demonstration against the government. Their action is a protest against the decision to annul the election of the nationalist party's only Assembly deputy.

1998 March 1 In London, more than 250,000 join a "Countryside March". The procession, London's biggest demonstration for over a decade, is in protest against plans to ban fox-hunting, government decisions over farming subsidies, land rights, and other rural issues. In Burma, 40 people are arrested as the Burmese military regime uncover plans to bomb government buildings and embassies. Those arrested are believed to be members of the All Burma Student Democratic Front, a prodemocracy group which fled the country after the military crushed a democratic uprising in 1988. Two new women's athletics world records are set at the European Indoor Athletic Championships held in Valencia, Spain. Anzhela Balakhonova of Ukraine pole vaults 4.45 metres, and Ashia Hansen of the United Kingdom sets an indoor world record with a triple jump of 15.16 metres.

1998 March 2 In Pristina, the capital of Kosovo province in southern Serbia, riot police clash with more than 30,000 demonstrators. The Albanian protesters are angry that confrontations with armed police have resulted in the deaths of 16 ethnic Albanians during the last three days. The protestors are dispersed by force, prompting warnings from the international community to the Serbian government to bring a peaceful solution to the problems in the region. In Germany, Gerhard Schroder is formally nominated by his colleagues as the representative of the Social Democratic Party. He will now challenge Helmut Kohl for the position of chancellor in the general election in September. In the U.S.A., a computer hacker causes thousands of machines running Microsoft Windows programs to crash. Many computers in government departments and leading universities are affected, including ninety per cent of NASA's field offices. The attack does not cause the loss of any data, but an FBI investigation is launched.

1998 March 3 In Lagos, Nigeria, 20 people are arrested during a protest against General Sani Abacha, the country's military ruler. The protest, organized by the United Action for Democracy, is scheduled to counteract a pro-Abacha march taking place in Abuja. Police use tear gas to disperse the demonstration, which was banned by the government. Ecuador's finance minister, Marco Flores, announces that his government will need to spend in excess of 2 billion U.S. dollars over the next ten years to repair the damage caused by the El Nino weather phenomenon. In Zimbabwe, a nationwide strike against tax increases brings the country to a standstill. The Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions, which organized the strike, claims that ninety per cent of businesses observe it. The protest is expected to continue for a further 24 hours, in spite of condemnation by President Robert Mugabe and threats of violence from government troops. In New York, President Clinton and more than 1,000 prominent figures attend the seventy-fifth birthday celebration for Time magazine. The guests, including Mikhail Gorbachev, Muhammad Ali, Jodie Foster, and Joe DiMaggio, pay homage to the magazine that was launched by two Yale students and now has a circulation of more than four million per week.

1998 March 4 The former prime minister of Cambodia, Prince Norodom Ranariddh, is convicted in his absence of illegally importing arms and sentenced to five years imprisonment. The trial is widely regarded as a sham, as it is conducted by Hun Sen, who ousted Prince Ranariddh from power in July, 1997. Prince Ranariddh refuses to recognise the authority of the court. (See also July 8, 1997.) Israeli President Ezer Weizman wins a second term in office, defeating Shaul Amor, the preferred candidate of Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. Weizman wins the parliamentary ballot by 63 votes to 49.

1998 March 5 In Colombo, Sri Lanka, at least 28 people are killed and more than 250 others injured when a suicide bomber detonates a device concealed in a minibus. The bomb explodes outside a police station, destroying shops and vehicles, and killing 29 civilians, two police officers, and the bomber himself. Blame is attributed to the militant Tamil Tiger group. American scientists announce that flecks of ice were discovered within craters on the moon by NASA's Lunar Prospector robot space probe during its orbit of the moon in January, 1998. NASA's experts believe there are large quantities of water at each lunar pole, and hope it can be used in the future to refuel spacecraft, and thus allow deeper exploration of the solar system. In the U.S.A., President Clinton appoints Lieutenant Colonel Eileen Collins to be the first female commander of an American space mission. The flight is scheduled to launch in December, 1998.

1998 March 6 In Kosovo, tension heightens between Serbian police and ethnic Albanians as violence continues in the area. The police claim they killed the Albanian leader of the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) in an assault that left at least 20 dead and many more injured. (See also March 2.) Luo Gan, a member of China's State Council, announces the biggest reorganization of the Chinese government since 1949. The proposed changes include halving the number of civil servants by the end of the year, and reorganizing local government in order to streamline the current bureaucratic system.

1998 March 7 In the Salang area of Afghanistan, more than 70 people are feared dead as an avalanche envelopes a village at the foot of the Hindu Kush mountains. Many more are missing, and authorities fear the death toll will rise. In Rome, Erich Priebke is sentenced to life imprisonment for his part in Italy's worst massacre during World War II. Priebke, a former Nazi, is found guilty of helping murder 335 men and boys in 1944 at the Ardeatine Caves, near Rome. In the United Kingdom, a book entitled "De Naturis Rerum" is returned to Stafford Public Library, 135 years late. The book, originally borrowed in 1863, was discovered in the University of Chicago library. It is exempted from the 4,000-pound-sterling fine it has accrued over the years.

1998 March 8 International Women's Day is celebrated across the world and is marked by a variety of demonstrations, exhibitions, and other organized events. In Spain, more than 4,000 women march through Madrid in protest against domestic violence. In Warsaw, debate becomes heated between feminists, anti-abortionists, and monarchists, and eggs and potatoes are hurled as missiles. In the U.S.A., a Vietnam veteran, armed with a rifle and suspected of carrying explosives, breaks into a federal building in Waco, Texas. Jason Leigh demands large sums of money to abandon his siege of the Veterans Administration building. He claims his actions are in response to government delays in paying disability benefits to him and many other veterans. He later surrenders peacefully.

1998 March 9 In Boston, U.S.A., British nanny Louise Woodward appears in court for a double appeal hearing. Her defence team argue for her to be cleared of her manslaughter conviction, and the prosecution team argue that the initial, second-degree murder conviction should be reinstated. The verdict is expected within the next 120 days. (See also October 30, November 10.) At a school in Saitama prefecture, near Tokyo, Japan, a 13-year-old schoolboy stabs to death Makoto Kato, one of his classmates. Kato had reportedly been bullying the boy, who cannot be named for legal reasons, for months. The murder is the latest in a series of violent attacks by teenage children in Japan, prompting fears about the vast increase in youth crime in the country. The El Nino weather phenomenon is blamed for massive flooding throughout southern states in the U.S.A. which kills at least seven people. Hailstones with a diameter of up to 13 centimetres are recorded in Louisiana, and tornadoes devastate large areas of Florida.

1998 March 10 General Augusto Pinochet, former military dictator of Chile, steps down as commander of the Chilean army in a ceremony in Santiago. After the ceremony, police armed with tear gas and water cannon disperse anti-Pinochet demonstrations, as hundreds take to the streets to protest at the honours given Pinochet, despite his human rights abuses while in power. Pinochet becomes a senator-for-life. Lloyd Bridges, Hollywood actor and father of actors Beau and Jeff Bridges, dies at his home in Los Angeles, U.S.A., at the age of 85. Bridges is remembered for his wide range of work on television and in film, despite being blacklisted during the McCarthy era. In Freetown, Sierra Leone, thousands line the streets to welcome President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah back from ten months in exile. Kabbah, cheered on by the crowd, pledges to reconstruct his country's economy and infrastructure, which was destroyed by the military junta who ousted him from power. Kabbah had been living in neighbouring Guinea since the coup in May, 1997. (See also February 13, 11, 10.)

1998 March 11 In Paris, the remains of actor Yves Montand are exhumed on the orders of a French court. His teeth and bones are to be used to gain DNA samples in order to settle a paternity suit brought by Aurore Drossart, 22, who claims to be Montand's daughter. This is the first time a body has been exhumed in order to settle a paternity suit. In Israel, Palestinian rioters throw petrol bombs and stones at Israeli troops during clashes in Hebron, in Dura, and in Ramallah, north of Jerusalem. The riots follow the fatal shooting of three Palestinian workers at an army checkpoint on March 10, and result in more than 40 injuries. More than 10,000 people attend the funerals of the three victims later in the day. In Tokyo, police raid the Bank of Japan and arrest a senior official, Yasuyuki Yoshizawa, who is suspected of bribery. The raid is part of a wide-reaching investigation into bribery and corruption in the Japanese financial sector.

1998 March 12 In Mauritius, the thirtieth anniversary of the country's independence is celebrated. In Israel, Mordechai Vanunu is freed from solitary confinement and allowed to mix with other prisoners for the first time in 12 years. Vanunu was jailed for treason in 1986 following his revelation of Israel's secret nuclear program to a British newspaper. He is released from the longest spell of isolation enforced in recent Western history, following an international campaign for his freedom. In Denmark, Poul Nyrup Rasmussen wins another term in office as prime minister. His Social Democrat party wins the election by a majority of only one parliamentary seat, with the extreme right making strong gains.

1998 March 13 In Seoul, South Korea, President Kim Dae Jung releases more than 5.5 million prisoners, in the biggest amnesty since the founding of the country. The amnesty, designed to create national harmony and aid South Korea's financial crisis, sees the release of 74 political prisoners and the pardon of many more convicted of lesser offences such as driving under the influence of alcohol. President Dae Jung is criticized by the human rights group Amnesty International for failing to release all political prisoners. In Italy, a government minister is stripped of his ministerial powers by the cabinet, as allegations of his links with the Mafia emerge. The action is taken against Angelo Giorgianni, a junior interior minister, after he refuses calls from Prime Minister Romano Prodi and Foreign Minister Lamberto Dini to resign.

1998 March 14 Sonia Gandhi, widow of former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, takes over as president of the Indian Congress Party. She replaces Sitaram Kesri, who resigns following heavy defeats in the recent Indian elections. (See also February 22, 14.) An earthquake in southeastern Iran kills 2 people and injures more than 15 others. The quake, measuring 6.4 on the Richter scale, badly damages the provincial capital of Kerman. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the human rights group AZADHO (Association for the Defence of Human Rights) alleges that President Laurent Kabila's troops have executed civilians in the town of Butembo. The government rejects the group's allegations as false, but seizes more than 1,000 copies of the groups 1997 report on human rights abuses in the Central African country.

1998 March 15 In India, after an indecisive general election result, Atal Behari Vajpayee of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) is invited to form the next government by President Kocheril Narayanan. He is asked to head a coalition government on condition that he provides proof that such a government will be stable, with a workable majority. Vajpayee is expected to be sworn in on March 19. In California, U.S.A., Dr Benjamin Spock dies in his home at the age of 94. Dr Spock's book "Baby and Child Care", which has sold more than 50 million copies, revolutionized parenting and childcare attitudes when it was published in 1946. In spite of earning more than 15 million U.S. dollars from the sales of his book, Dr Spock dies penniless, having spent much of his fortune on legal battles and donations to antiwar and civil rights groups. In Kuwait, the entire cabinet resigns as a protest against the presentation of a no-confidence vote in the Information Minister Sheikh Saud Nasser al-Sabah. The motion against the information minister was brought after he allowed books that are banned in Kuwait because they are considered un-Islamic to be displayed at an exhibition. The prime minister is expected to reshuffle the cabinet in order to bring Sheikh Saud back in another ministry. In the Maze prison outside Belfast, Northern Ireland, a man being held on suspicion of the murders of a Catholic and a Protestant is himself murdered. David Keys was charged, along with three other men, of shooting dead the two men in a killing that outraged Northern Irish people of both religious denominations. His murder inside the prison, which houses many of Northern Ireland's most dangerous terrorists, raises many questions over its security. (See also December 27.)

1998 March 16 At least 12 people are feared dead when their boat, carrying illegal immigrants from north Africa to Spain, sinks in the Straits of Gibraltar. Seventeen other people are rescued. In Geneva, peace talks between north and south Korea open after a five-hour delay caused by a dispute over seating. The negotiations, involving the U.S.A. and China, as well as North and South Korea, are expected to last for at least three days. (See also December 9.) In Brazil, indigenous tribal leaders appeal for help from their government as the worst Amazonian forest fire for at least 30 years continues to spread. The fire is fuelled by high winds and a long period of drought. It has destroyed large areas of the state of Roraima, and is threatening the jungle reservation of the Yanomami, the largest indigenous group to retain a primitive way of life.

1998 March 17 In China, Zhu Rongji is appointed prime minister after securing 98 per cent of votes from the National People's Congress in a one-candidate contest. Many Chinese people believe Rongji will lead them into a new era of democracy, and hope he will stabilise China's economy in a time of crisis across much of Asia. In Zambia, President Frederick Chiluba lifts the state of emergency that was imposed following a failed coup attempt in October 1997.

1998 March 18 In New York, the auction of many items once belonging to John F. Kennedy opens after some controversy. The auctioneers were previously forced to return many articles to the former U.S. president's children, the National Archives, and government security officials. The sale is expected to last for two days. In Israel, an 18-year-old man is arrested in connection with the infiltration of American and Israeli computer systems. The man, known only as "Analyser", is believed to be responsible, along with two American teenagers, for hacking into the Pentagon's computer systems, university research networks, and NASA systems. (See also March 2.) It is announced in Brooklyn, New York City, that the week ending March 15 was the first week in living memory without a recorded murder in the borough. It is hoped that this is a sign of the changing nature of Brooklyn.

1998 March 19 In Pretoria, South Africa, President Nelson Mandela becomes the first head of state to appear in court to defend his political actions. Mandela is subpoenaed to defend his decision to order an enquiry into corruption and racism in the South African Rugby Football Union (SARFU). In India, the leader of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) is sworn in as prime minister at a ceremony in New Delhi. Atal Behari Vajpayee heads a coalition government made up of many differing political groups, with the BJP holding a very small minority.

1998 March 20 In Calais, France, more than 500 ferry workers and dockers go on strike in protest against the proposed ending of duty-free shopping within the European Union from July 1999. The strikers blockade the ferry port, effectively shutting it down for the day. They also block the motorway entrance to the Channel Tunnel for four hours, forcing the cancellation of passenger and freight services. In Germany, more than 30,000 police officers are deployed to oversee the journey of a train carrying nuclear waste from southern Germany to Ahaus, in the north. Protesters chain themselves to the tracks in an attempt to block the route of the train, and are dispersed by police armed with water cannon, batons, and tear gas. Tornadoes strike Florida and northeast Georgia, U.S.A., killing at least 11 people and injuring more than 80 others. (See also March 9, February 23.)

1998 March 21 In Nigeria, Pope John Paul II is greeted by thousands of wellwishers as he arrives at Abuja airport for a three-day visit. He is expected to plead for clemency for more than 60 political prisoners detained by the military leader General Sani Abacha, and will give a mass for the beatification of Father Cyprian Tansi, who died in 1964 and is likely to become the first Nigerian saint. The four-nation talks between North and South Korea, China, and the U.S.A. break up in disarray, with no solution or deal having been brokered. (See also March 16, December 9.)

1998 March 22 Venezuelan, Argentinian, and Brazilian firefighters begin to tackle the fires blazing in the northern Amazonian rainforest in Brazil, after the Brazilian government had refused earlier offers of help. The fire teams dump water on the forest from helicopters and it is hoped that they can extinguish all flames within 20 days. (See also March 16.) King Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia issues an amnesty for his son, Prince Ranariddh, pardoning him of two criminal convictions which carried 35-year jail terms and a 50-million-U.S.-dollar fine. The pardon means that Prince Ranariddh may now contest a general election, proposed for July, for the position of prime minister. (See also March 4.) In the Serbian province of Kosovo, ethnic Albanians vote in favour of a separate government, in defiance of Serbian orders. It is estimated that one million Albanians turn out to vote, in spite of a heavily armed Serbian police presence. They elect Ibrahim Rugova, a nonviolent Albanian activist, as their unofficial president. (See also March 6, March 2.)

1998 March 23 In Accra, Ghana, President Bill Clinton of the United States arrives for the start of an 11-day tour of six African states. He is greeted by President Jerry Rawlings and more than 250,000 wellwishers. Clinton pledges American assistance in the battle for democracy throughout Africa. In Russia, President Boris Yeltsin dismisses Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin and all 33 members of his cabinet. The move is greeted with surprise from the international community, and prompts fears that it may result in political instability for the country. The former fuel and energy minister, Sergei Kiriyenko, is appointed as acting prime minister. It is announced in the United Kingdom that the Channel Tunnel fire of 1996 was the result of arson. The investigating judge rules out the possibility that the fire, which caused 200-million-pounds-sterling worth of damage, was an accident.

1998 March 24 In the town of Jonesboro, in Arkansas, U.S.A., two schoolboys, aged 11 and 13, shoot dead four of their classmates and a teacher and injure more than 10 others. After forcing the school's evacuation by setting off a fire alarm, the boys shoot at the pupils and their teachers as they assemble in the playground. The boys are heavily armed with rifles and pistols, and seem to aim specifically at female students. Police apprehend the boys as they run away from the school. In eastern India, a cyclone kills at least 125 people and leaves many more missing as it travels through the states of West Bengal and Orissa. The cyclone, which brought torrential rain and winds reaching 180 kilometres per hour, also destroys hundreds of homes. In Harare, Zimbabwe, President Robert Mugabe orders riot police to forcibly disperse a peaceful demonstration using baton charges and tear gas. The 400 female protesters are former supporters of Mugabe's nationalist guerrillas who helped free the country from white-minority rule. They are campaigning for equal rights to pensions.

1998 March 25 The discovery of the fossilized remains of a baby dinosaur is announced by Italian palaeontologists Marco Signore and Cristiano Dal Sasso. The fossil, named Scipionyx Samniticus, is more than 113 million years old, and is believed to be first that shows the internal organs of a dinosaur. It was discovered in the Benevento region of southern Italy. In Bonn, Germany, the six-member international contact group on the former Yugoslavia set a deadline for President Milosevic to negotiate peace in the Serbian province of Kosovo. The population of Kosovo is predominantly Albanian. The foreign ministers of the U.S.A., United Kingdom, Russia, France, Germany, and Italy set a four-week limit, before which President Milosevic must enter into "unconditional dialogue" with Albanian leaders in the province. In Borneo, all schools in Brunei are shut down for two weeks as the country is blanketed by smog from the forest fires burning on the island. Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah prays with thousands of others for rain, as the air pollution in the country reaches dangerous levels.

1998 March 26 In Oregon, U.S.A., a woman in her eighties becomes the first person to die under the controversial doctor-assisted suicide law in Oregon. The woman, who had terminal breast cancer, swallows a fatal dose of sleeping pills. The law came into force in November, 1997. A fire at a boarding school north of Mombasa, Kenya, kills at least 24 girls and leaves 29 others injured. The fire is ignited shortly before midnight by an electrical fault, and quickly spreads throughout the Bombolulu Girls Secondary School. Riots at the Semenyih detention camp, north of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, result in the deaths of four people, and leave 38 more injured. Police enter the camp, which holds illegal immigrants fleeing economic crisis in Indonesia, in order to remove inmates for forcible repatriation. Fighting erupts, resulting in the deaths of three Indonesians and a policeman.

1998 March 27 In Devon, United Kingdom, Queen Elizabeth II makes her first official visit to a pub. She visits the 400-year-old Bridge Inn public house in Topsham as part of her tour of the southwest of England, and is presented with a crate of special 101 ale, brewed to commemorate the pub's 101 consecutive years of management by the Cheffers-Heard family. Ferdinand Porsche, the man who helped design the Volkswagen Beetle car for Adolf Hitler and who created the Porsche sports car empire, dies at his home in Austria, aged 88. In Auckland, New Zealand, an emergency cable, implemented to bring to an end the city's five-week electricity shortage, short-circuits and cuts off the power supply once more. The cable lasts only hours before being closed down but is restored by the end of the day. Auckland has been affected by a power shortage since February, 1998.

1998 March 28 In London, more than 15,000 people march through the city's streets in the biggest pro-cannabis demonstration for thirty years. The protest is organized by the Independent on Sunday newspaper and receives support from many prominent celebrities. Many people believe the drug cannabis (marijuana) is less dangerous than such legalized substances as tobacco and alcohol. Others feel cannabis should be legalized because of the medicinal benefits it could apply to sufferers of diseases such as multiple sclerosis. Hundreds of thousands of antifascist protesters march in demonstrations across France. The protests are triggered by a series of political alliances forged between the National Front and centre-right parties, in order to block left-wing presidents taking power in the regional councils.

1998 March 29 In Piura, Peru, a jet plane carrying 50 civilians crashes, killing 28 people. The Peruvian military plane, carrying civilians from Tumbes to Piura because landslides and floods had blocked land routes, crashes into a shantytown north of the city. Seven passengers are still missing, but it is believed that nobody on the ground was killed. An Israeli archaeologist announces the discovery of the world's oldest synagogue. Professor Ehud Netzer believes the remains of a synagogue he located near Jericho, Israel, date from between 75 and 50 BC. The synagogue is part of the complex of a Hasmonean palace, discovered by Netzer 25 years ago. In Postignano, Italy, an earthquake measuring 4.7 on the Richter scale destroys the inner wall of a church, revealing behind it a fifteenth century fresco. The fresco was uncovered after the tenth quake in the country in six months.

1998 March 30 In Romania, Prime Minister Victor Ciorbea resigns his posts as head of government and as mayor of Bucharest. Ciorbea had been under pressure from his coalition government who were unhappy with his economic policies. In Cambodia, Prince Norodom Ranariddh returns to Phnom Penh after nine months in exile. He is welcomed home by more than 1,000 wellwishers, and will now begin to rebuild his Funcinpec party in time for a general election in July. (See also March 4, 1998 and July 8, 1997.) In Florida, U.S.A., Judy Buenoano becomes the first woman to be put to death in the state since 1848. Buenoano, nicknamed the "Black Widow", is killed in Florida's electric chair for the murders of her husband, son, and another man.

1998 March 31 The United Nations Security Council imposes an arms embargo on Yugoslavia, in response to President Slobodan Milosevic's continued hostility to autonomy for the Serbian province of Kosovo. The UN hopes its action will pressure Milosevic into holding talks with Albanian leaders in Kosovo, and that he will ultimately grant the province autonomy. (See also March 25.) In Wellington, New Zealand, the government agrees to a bill detailing settlement for a Maori tribe after six years of fruitless negotiations. The bill gives the Ngai Tahu tribe financial compensation, as well as a land settlement of 2,300 acres. (See also November 21, 1997.) In Haryana, India, a law forbidding the consumption of alcohol is repealed after two years of prohibition in the state.

1998 April 1 In Arkansas, U.S.A., the sexual harrassment case brought against U.S. President Bill Clinton by Paula Jones is thrown out of court. Jones alleged that President Clinton exposed himself to her in 1991 but Judge Susan Webber Wright rules that the complaint does not warrant a full trial. (See also January 17.) At an auction in London, the "Kreutzer" violin, a 271-year-old Stradivarius, is sold for 947,500 pounds sterling (1.6 million U.S. dollars). It is believed this is the highest price ever paid for a musical instrument. In Botswana, the new president, Festus Mogae, is sworn in at a ceremony in Gaborone. Mogae is the third president of the independent country. In Brazil, it is announced that heavy rains have helped extinguish 95 per cent of the forest fires that have destroyed large areas of the Amazonian rainforest. (See also March 22, 16.)

1998 April 2 At a court in Bordeaux, France, Maurice Papon is convicted of crimes against humanity for his role in the mass deportation of Jews from France during World War II (1939-1945). Papon, 87, is the first French government official to be brought to account for his actions in the war. After the longest trial in French history, he is sentenced to 10 years imprisonment but remains free, pending an appeal. In Jerusalem, more than 6,000 Palestinian people join the funeral procession of Muhi al-Din al-Sharif, chief bomb-maker for the Hamas terrorist group. Rioting breaks out along the West Bank as Palestinians who hold Israel responsible for al-Sharif's death attack Israeli police. A bomb weighing almost 500 kilograms is discovered in a car crossing from the Republic of Ireland to the United Kingdom. Police intercept the bomb in Dublin and arrest the car driver, believed to be a militant republican belonging to a terrorist group headed by dissident IRA members.

1998 April 3 In London, artist Anthony-Noel Kelly and laboratory technician Niel Lindsay are convicted of stealing human body parts. Kelly, who used the parts to make moulds for his sculptures, is sentenced to nine months in prison. Lindsay receives a suspended sentence for his part in smuggling the dismembered bodies out of the Royal College of Surgeons. Maurice Papon is ordered to pay 4.6 million francs (approximately 800,000 U.S. dollars) in legal costs and damages to civil parties following his conviction for crimes against humanity (see April 2). In Berlin, Germany, a historic meeting of the East German Centre of the international writers' association, P.E.N., votes to merge with the former West German P.E.N. The merging of the two groups would form a united Centre eight years after the reunification of Germany. It is expected that the members of the West German P.E.N. will agree to such a merger when they meet next month.

1998 April 4 In Memphis, U.S.A., more than 4,000 people march in procession along the route taken by Martin Luther King for his last march. The procession marks the thirtieth anniversary of the black civil rights leader's assassination. At the head of the march is Jesse Jackson who calls for a new inquiry into King's murder, amid rumours of government and FBI involvement in the killing. Heavy rains, probably caused by the El Nino weather phenomenon, cause a landslide in southwestern Iran, burying Abkarlabad village. Rescue efforts are hampered by continuing bad weather. In Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei, environment ministers from the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) meet for a third time to discuss ways in which to combat the smog that is enveloping much of the island. (See also March 25.)

1998 April 5 An explosion at a coalmine in Donetsk, Ukraine, kills 63 workers and injures more than 40 others in the worst mining accident in the country's history. Investigations begin into what caused the methane gas explosion. In Japan, the world's longest suspension bridge opens to traffic. The Akashi Kaikyo bridge connects Kobe city with Shikoku Island, via the island of Awaji. It measures almost four kilometres, and took 10 years to build. An overloaded ferryboat carrying at least 300 passengers sinks in the Bight of Bonny, off the coast of Cameroon. The boat, which was travelling to Gabon, overturns in high winds. Only 20 survivors are found.

1998 April 6 Researchers at the National Cancer Institute in the U.S.A. announce their discovery that the drug tamoxifen halves the chances of breast cancer developing in women at high risk of contracting the disease. Trials of the drug have proved its effectiveness in cutting the number of cases of breast cancer, but suggest that women taking tamoxifen run an increased risk of contracting endometrial cancer, blood clots, and deep-vein thrombosis. Tammy Wynette, the country singer best known for her song "Stand by Your Man", dies at her home in Nashville, U.S.A., at the age of 55. Wynette is remembered as the "first lady of country music", having won Country Music Association awards, a Grammy, and an Award of Merit from the American Music Awards. In northern Israel, Israeli Arabs go on strike in protest against the destruction of three houses by police near the village of Shefar'am, in Galilee. The demolition of the houses on April 4 left three families with a total of 41 children homeless, and triggered confrontations between Israeli Arabs and police in which 44 people were injured.

1998 April 7 It is announced that water has been detected in the atmosphere of Saturn's largest satellite, Titan. Scientists from the European Space Agency's Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) believe they have identified water on Titan, as well as vast quantities of water in the spaces between stars. The discovery raises many new questions over the possibility of life on another other planet. In Washington, U.S.A., President Clinton orders the attorney general to reopen the file on the death of Martin Luther King, 30 years after his assassination in Memphis. The president requests that the inquiry involves King's widow, Coretta Scott King, who has persistently requested a full federal investigation into the black leader's death. (See also April 4.) In Toronto, Canada, 12 "prisoners of conscience" released from Cuba arrive with more than 20 of their dependants. The prisoners, who were released after the Pope's visit to Cuba in January, are free on condition that they do not remain in their country. They were accepted into Canada only after extensive security checks had been undertaken.

1998 April 8 Throughout Australia, thousands of workers march in protest against the sacking of more than 1,400 dockers by Patrick Stevedores company, Australia's second largest docks operator. The dismissal of the dockers, all members of the Maritime Union of Australia (MUA), provokes outrage among the trade union movement. Union leaders pledge to continue protest action, in direct opposition to the federal government who support the dismissals. In the United Kingdom, Defence Secretary George Robertson announces that the former royal yacht, Britannia, will be installed at Leith Docks, Edinburgh. The ship is to be restored in preparation for its new role as a tourist attraction. (See also December 11, 1997.) More than 38 people are killed and hundreds more injured as a series of tornadoes and thunderstorms ravage the southern states of the U.S.A. The storms destroy more than 150 homes and leave whole communities cut off from road links and electricity supplies. The state of Alabama is worst affected, with winds of more than 400 kilometres per hour claiming at least 22 lives.

1998 April 9 In Saudi Arabia, at least 115 Muslims are killed as panic causes a stampede among more than 2 million Muslim pilgrims travelling to Mecca on the annual hajj. A stampede on the same section of Jamraat bridge cost 270 lives in 1994. In Seattle, U.S.A., a pilot attempting to land his Cessna aircraft at Boeing Field airport entangles his machine in overhead electricity cables. Mike Warren's plane hangs, upside down, by one wheel for more than four hours as rescuers attempt to reach him. Power supplies are cut off, leaving more than 25,000 homes without electricity, and the road 18 metres below the stranded plane is evacuated. Warren is eventually freed by a fireman on an elevated platform. Throughout Russia, hundreds of thousands of workers march in protest against the government's delay in paying billions of dollars of overdue wages. The protest, organized by the Federation of Independent Trade Unions, is a response to months of nonpayment by the government.

1998 April 10 In Stormont, Northern Ireland, the prime ministers of Ireland and the United Kingdom, Bertie Ahern and Tony Blair, announce the settlement of a peace plan to bring to an end the hostilities in Northern Ireland. The new agreement is reached after 22 months of negotiations between the Ulster Unionist party, Sinn Fein, and six other political parties, as well as involvement from the governments of Ireland, the United Kingdom, and the U.S.A. The deal will be put to the people of Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland in a referendum on May 22, 1998. In Armenia, President Robert Kocharyan appoints Armen Darbinyan as prime minister. Darbinyan was finance and economy minister under the former president, Levon Ter-Petrosyan. In the United Kingdom, torrential rain causes the most severe flooding in the country for more than a century. Four people are drowned in the rising waters. The floods cut off rail and road links, destroy hundreds of homes, and cause the evacuation of thousands more.

1998 April 11 In Mexico, the city of Monterrey is put on stand-by for evacuation as forest fires continue to burn out of control. Forest fires, which have affected nearly every state in the country this year, destroy 600 hectares of the Chipinque Ecological Park on the outskirts of Monterrey. More than 350 firefighters and volunteers battle against the blaze, which is fuelled by dry weather blamed on the El Nino phenomenon. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the government orders the immediate closure of all private airstrips, and instructs all planes arriving from outside the country to land at international airports. The order is expected to hinder the efforts of international relief agencies operating in the Central African country. Air transport and private airstrips are vital links outside the capital, Kinshasa, since the collapse of the country's road network.

1998 April 12 In Augusta, U.S.A., Mark O'Meara wins the U.S. Masters golf competition. O'Meara holes a 6-metre putt on the seventy-second hole to win his first major trophy. He is presented with the Green Jacket by last year's winner, Tiger Woods. In Cambodia, a government general announces the capture of Pol Pot, former leader of the Khmer Rouge. General Meas Sophea announces that Pol Pot was apprehended in Thailand and placed under house arrest in Ba Sa-Ngam. King Sihanouk of Cambodia pledges support for a U.S. plan to bring Pol Pot to justice for his crimes against humanity. In Bristol, in the United Kingdom, a new world record is set as an 11-metric-ton steak-and-kidney pie is successfully cooked. The pie, measuring almost 10 metres in length, beats a previous weight record held by a chicken pie in the U.S.A.

1998 April 13 In Mererani, near Arusha in Tanzania, rescue workers continue efforts to save more than fifty miners who became trapped when heavy rain flooded their tanzanite mine on April 9. Although 21 people have been rescued from the mine, four men have been found dead. It is feared that the remaining workers will not survive in the flooded pits. In Bogota, Colombia, more than 15 people are killed inside Picota prison in the country's worst prison violence for a decade. The violence is triggered by the murder of a prison gang leader, which leads to the storming of a rival cellblock by his heavily armed followers. At least three others are seriously injured in the assault.

1998 April 14 In Lahore, Pakistan, thousands of children march the city streets in protest against the exploitation of children in the labour market. The demonstration, which also calls for improvements to the education system, is led by 50 children from countries throughout Asia who have been leading "The Global March" for three months. Officials estimate that more than 3 million Pakistani children younger than 14 years old are in full-time employment. In the holy city of Allahabad, in north India, millions of Hindus gather to bathe in the waters of the Ganges River. The ritual is part of the Hindu festival Kumbh Mela, and is believed to purify the body and wash away sin. In the U.S.A., the Pulitzer prizes for journalism, drama, letters, and music are announced by Columbia University in New York. The prize for public service goes to the Grand Forks Herald newspaper of North Dakota for its continued coverage during flood disasters in early 1997. The prizes for poetry and fiction go to Charles Wright and Philip Roth respectively. The music prize goes to Aaron Jay Kernis.

1998 April 15 Pol Pot, former dictator of Cambodia and leader of the Khmer Rouge, is found dead in the hut where he was held under house arrest, near the Thailand-Cambodia border. Pol Pot, who was in his seventies, was to be tried for crimes against humanity for his "killing fields" regime in the 1970's, which cost the lives of more than one million Cambodians. He is believed to have died of a heart attack. (See also April 12.) At the George Regional Court east of Cape Town, South Africa, the trial of former president P.W. Botha begins. Botha's trial is the result of his refusal to appear before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) to answer questions about his actions during South Africa's apartheid era. (See also February 23.) In Monchy-le-Preux, France, three British soldiers killed in World War I are re-buried, 81 years after their deaths. Frank King, George Anderson, and an unknown soldier were discovered buried in a mass grave in December 1996.

1998 April 16 Five military officers are shot dead as their vehicle is ambushed by Chechen gunmen in the area bordering the regions of Ossetia and Ingushetia, in the Caucasus mountains in Russia. Several more officers are injured in the attack, which is believed to be the work of rebel Chechen militants who refuse to accept the peace treaty with Russia. It is announced in Turkey that 82 Kurdish rebels have been killed since April 13 in an attempt to neutralize the rebels' campaign for Kurdish self-rule. The violence was focused on the area around the Cudi Mountain on the Turkish-Iraqi border. A further 11 Turkish troops also died in the fighting. Fred Davis, eight times world snooker champion, dies at his home in Denbigh, Wales, at the age of 84.

1998 April 17 Linda McCartney, wife of former Beatle Paul McCartney, dies on holiday in California, U.S.A., following a long battle with cancer. She is remembered for her work as a photographer and animal rights campaigner, as well as for her musical involvement with her husband in their band, Wings. She was 56 years old. In the U.S.A., scientists at the National Snow and Ice Data Center, Colorado, announce that satellite images taken on March 23 show that a large ice shelf has become detached from the Antarctic Peninsula. The Larsen B ice shelf has already diminished by about 40 kilometres, and it is expected to melt completely within the next two years. The discovery prompts fears of widespread rises in sea levels and catastrophic flooding as a result of further rises in global temperatures. In Kabul, Afghanistan, talks between the Afghan Taliban and Bill Richardson, the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, result in a ceasefire agreement. The Taliban agree to cease hostilities with their enemies in the north of the country and it is hoped that face-to-face negotiations may be achieved by the end of April.

1998 April 18 In Italy, the Turin Shroud goes on display for only the fourth time this century at the cathedral of Turin. The shroud, which bears an image of a man's body, is believed by many to be the burial cloth of Jesus Christ. Some experts, however, claim that it dates only from the 1200's. The shroud is expected to attract more than 50,000 visitors a day during its nine weeks on display. In Sydney, Australia, thousands of supporters of the recently dismissed dockworkers clash with police. Demonstrators have been blocking the entrance to several ports in Australia for more than a week, and riot police attempt to break the picket line forcibly. Two protesters are injured in the resulting violence, and the police eventually retreat. (See also April 8.) In the provinces of Corrientes and Chaco in Argentina, at least 10 people are killed as floods force the evacuation of 38,000 people in the north of the country. A further 280,000 people are confined to their homes as floodwaters rise, and authorities announce that vast areas of agricultural land have been destroyed.

1998 April 19 In Detroit, U.S.A., Chinese dissident Wang Dan arrives after being exiled to the country following his release from prison in Liaoning province. Dan's release on medical grounds is not announced in China until his plane from Peking has taken off. He was imprisoned in 1989 following his part in organizing the Tiananmen Square democracy demonstrations. In London, the British films awards, known as the Baftas, are announced. The British film "The Full Monty" receives the most awards, collecting four after being nominated in ten categories. The highlight of the event is the presentation of an Academy fellowship to actor Sean Connery for his lifetime's contribution to films. In Austria, President Thomas Klestil wins a second term in office following an overwhelming victory in the elections. Octavio Paz, the most prominent poet and essayist in Mexico, dies at his home in Coyoacan, Mexico City, at the age of 84. He is best remembered for a collection of essays, "The Labyrinth of Solitude", and his poem "Sunstone". Paz won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1990.

1998 April 20 In Germany, the Red Army Faction announces that it is to be disbanded after almost thirty years of guerrilla activity. The leftwing terrorist group was established in 1970 to replace the Baader-Meinhof Gang, and was responsible for more than 30 killings during the 1970's and 1980's. In Islamabad, Pakistan, hundreds of supporters of Benazir Bhutto assemble outside parliament. They are angry at her trial for corruption, ordered by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif's government. The demonstrators are forcibly dispersed by riot police using tear gas and batons, and at least three people are injured. In Bogota, Colombia, a jetliner en route to Ecuador crashes into a mountain shortly after its takeoff from Bogota's international airport. All 43 passengers and 10 crew are killed.

1998 April 21 In Benoni, near Johannesburg, South Africa, thousands of people attend the funeral of Angelina Zwane, a six-month-old black child shot dead by a white farmer. The murder has prompted much racial tension. Winnie Mandela is among those who speak at the funeral. The farmer, Nicholas Steyn, was arrested soon after the shooting on April 12. In Australia, a federal court judge orders the re-employment of all 1,400 workers dismissed by Patrick Stevedores, Australia's second largest docks operator. The decision is hailed as a victory by the thousands of people who have been picketing Sydney Harbour and ports in Perth, Melbourne, and Brisbane for two weeks. (See also April 18, 8.) In Cyprus, a series of earthquakes shakes the island but there are no reported injuries. Five quakes, measuring between 3.4 and 4.5 on the Richter scale, are measured during the activity, which is centred on Limassol, in the south of the island.

1998 April 22 In Babaloc, a village in the province of Kosovo in Serbia, Serbian police and Yugoslav military units attack the hideout where dozens of Albanians are sheltering. Several hundred armed police and soldiers enter the area, and it is thought that at least 22 Albanians are killed. The attack is an attempt to subdue antigovernment feeling prior to the April 23 referendum on whether Serbia should accept foreign intervention to find a solution to the Kosovo crisis. (See also March 31, 25, 22, 6, 2.) It is announced by a team of American scientists that the 1990's is the hottest decade for more than 600 years. The research, carried out by the universities of Massachusetts and Arizona, also reveals that 1990, 1995, and 1997 were hotter than any other years since 1400. The rise in temperature is attributed to a general global warming.

1998 April 23 In Belgium, the country's most notorious prisoner, Marc Dutroux, escapes from a court outside the town of Neufchateau and is not recaptured for more than four hours. His escape prompts a national outcry, as Belgian people regard the police as incompetent in their handling of the inquiry into the deaths of the four girls Dutroux is accused of killing. An emergency cabinet meting is called, which results in the resignation of Interior Minister Johan Vande Lanotte, and Justice Minister Stefaan De Clerck. In Poland, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu leads a march of more than 7,000 Jews through the former death camps of Auschwitz and Birkenau. The three-kilometre-long "March of the Living" honoured the deaths of more than 6 million Jews during the Holocaust, and also marked the fiftieth anniversary of Israel's foundation. James Earl Ray, who was sentenced to 99 years in prison for the murder of Martin Luther King in 1968, dies in hospital in Nashville, U.S.A., at the age of 70. He spent his last years repeatedly denying his guilt in the murder and seeking a new trial. (See also April 7.) Constantine Caramanlis, former prime minister of Greece and pioneer of democracy in the country, dies in Athens following a heart attack. He was 91 years old.

1998 April 24 In Russia, President Yeltsin's prime ministerial candidate is finally elected to power by the State Duma. Sergei Kiriyenko was rejected by the Duma on two previous occasions, and President Yeltsin warned that a final rejection would prompt him to dissolve parliament. (See also March 23.) In Rwanda, the public executions of 22 people sentenced to death for their part in the 1994 genocide take place. In the capital Kigali, more than 30,000 people attend the execution of four people. The other executions are carried out in Gikongoro, Nyamata, Cyasemakamba, and Murambi. The executions go ahead despite appeals for clemency by the Pope, the U.S.A., and the European Union.

1998 April 25 In French Polynesia, authorities announce that 8 people have been killed and more than 11 injured as heavy rains trigger devastating landslides. The landslides also cut off telephone and electricity supplies, and destroy a number of homes. At least 5 people are still missing. In Colombia, two American hostages held captive for 34 days by rebel kidnappers, are released. Peter Shen and Todd Mark were captured by the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) while bird-spotting in the area around Bogota. In Medan, Indonesia, police use rubber bullets to disperse a demonstration by more than 2,000 students. Violence flares as students leave the campus of the University of North Sumatra, and at least two students are badly injured. (See also March 26, February 2.)

1998 April 26 In Greensboro, U.S.A., a four-year-old boy shoots dead his six-year-old friend with a .38 calibre pistol he found in a handbag. Carlos Gilmer dies from gunshot wounds to his neck as his family prepares for his birthday party. Police are considering charging the owner of the gun under a state law that prohibits leaving guns accessible to minors. In Spain, authorities prevent toxic waste, spreading from a ruptured waste reservoir at Los Frailes mine, from entering the Donana National Park. The mine produces zinc, lead, copper, and silver. The spill has created a 32-kilometre-long path of toxic mud since the rupture on April 25, and the encroaching waste seriously threatened the park's ecology. In New Delhi, Indian police take three hunger-striking protesters to hospital for force-feeding in an attempt to divert attention from the strikers' cause, the freedom of Tibet from Chinese rule. Three more protesters remain in their camp and vow to continue their 49-day-long fast until action is taken on the future of Tibet.

1998 April 27 In Japan, the Yamaguchi District Court rules that Tokyo should pay compensation to three South Korean former "comfort women", who were forced to provide sex for Japanese soldiers during World War II (1939-1945). In Haryana, India, at least 19 people are killed and more than 27 injured when a passenger bus crashes into a truck near the town of Panipat.

1998 April 28 In Nigeria, the former deputy leader of the country and five other men are sentenced to death for allegedly plotting a coup against General Sani Abacha. The men are found guilty by a tribunal sitting in the town of Jos and a total of 30 people are charged for crimes relating to the coup attempt. In Brazil, 10 inmates of the Carandiru prison in Sao Paulo end their 16-day hunger strike after a judge agrees to review their sentences. The 10 men were imprisoned in 1989 following their conviction for the kidnapping of a Brazilian businessman but claim they were acting for political purposes and had been routinely tortured since their incarceration.

1998 April 29 David Hempleman-Adams becomes the first man to complete the Adventurers Grand Slam as he reaches the end of his 56-day expedition to the North Pole. Hempleman-Adams has completed journeys to the highest peaks in all seven continents and has reached all four of the earth's magnetic and geographic poles since his quest began in 1980. In Rome, the Italian Lower House of Parliament is thrown into chaos as members of parliament (M.P.'s) discuss the result of the preceding weekend's football match between Juventus and Inter Milan. Two M.P.'s threaten each other physically and verbal abuses are hurled. Parliament is suspended for the rest of the day.

1998 April 30 In Israel, official celebrations mark the fiftieth anniversary of the establishment of the country. They include military displays and fireworks, as well as sombre remembrances of those who died in the struggle to create a Jewish state. (See also March 23.) In London, Syrian poet Nizar Kabbani dies at his home, aged 75. Kabbani is remembered for his inspirational and influential verses on love and life. In Jamaica, it is announced that the Australian author Peter Carey has won the Commonwealth Writers Prize. Carey wins the award for his novel "Jack Maggs", beating 8 other shortlisted candidates selected from 53 countries. In India, at least 50 people are feared drowned as a boat sinks in the Bagmati River, near the eastern city of Patna. The overloaded boat, believed to have been carrying 90 passengers, got into difficulty in a whirlpool before it capsized.

1998 May 1 In Arusha, Tanzania, former Rwandan prime minister Jean Kambanda pleads guilty to six charges of genocide. His admission of guilt to the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda marks the first acceptance of responsibility by the former Hutu regime for the killing of more than 800,000 people in 1994. In Leipzig, Germany, more than 6,000 police officers are deployed to break up fighting between the far-right National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD) and Left-wing extremists. The police intervene with water cannon and baton charges. Four people are injured and at least 40 are detained.

1998 May 2 In Brussels, European Union leaders formally launch the new European single currency, the euro. The euro will replace 11 European currencies when it comes into full circulation in 2002. During negotiations, an agreement is also reached to appoint Wim Duisenberg of Holland as president of the new European Central Bank. Duisenberg agrees to pass the presidency to Frenchman Jean-Claude Trichet halfway through the 8-year term of office. In southern Lebanon, a Hizbollah guerrilla is killed during attacks designed to oust Israeli and South Lebanon Army (SLA) troops from their occupation zone. Mohamad Abed al-Hussein dies as Hizbollah troops attack SLA outposts. He is the seventeenth guerrilla to be killed in south Lebanon since the beginning of the year.

1998 May 3 In Assam, northeast India, 12 Santhals tribesmen are killed and five more injured when the bus in which they are travelling is ambushed by rival Bodos tribesmen. In Sana, Yemen, three members of a British family arrive safely after their release from a two-week kidnapping ordeal. David Mitchell, his wife, and son were abducted on April 16, 1998, and held hostage by Yemeni tribespeople who demanded an electricity supply and provision of roads from the Yemen government in return for their safe release. It is not known whether the government agreed to their demands. In the Muheza district of northern Tanzania, 72 people are killed as the bus they are travelling in is swept into a river while attempting to cross a flooded bridge. A further 25 people, including the driver, escape from the accident.

1998 May 4 In Sacramento, U.S.A., Ted Kaczynski, known as the Unabomber, is sentenced to four life sentences in prison for his 17-year bombing campaign across America. Kaczynski, aged 55, killed three people and injured 29 more with his bomb devices between 1978 and 1995. (See also January 22, 1997.) An earthquake measuring 7.7 on the Richter scale causes a series of tidal waves to hit Okinawa and its neighbouring islands, in the north Pacific Ocean. The quake's epicentre is located 260 kilometres south of the Ryukyu Islands, 20 kilometres beneath the sea. No casualties are reported. At the Vatican, in Rome, the newly-appointed commander of the Pope's Swiss Guard and his wife are shot dead, apparently by a junior officer. Colonel Alois Estermann had been promoted to his new post just hours before his murder. It is believed Corporal Cedric Tornay, 23, killed Estermann and his wife before committing suicide.

1998 May 5 In Peru, a jet plane carrying 87 people crashes into the northern area of the Amazon rainforest, near Peru's border with Ecuador. The jet, en route from Lima to Andoas, crashes in heavy rain as it attempts to land. Twelve people are rescued from the crash site, but it is feared that no more survivors will be found. In Indonesia, violence between anti-Suharto protesters and police escalates as rioting breaks out in Jakarta, Medan, and other major cities. In Jakarta, more than 25 students are injured as police fire tear gas and rubber bullets at a demonstration of more than 5,000 people. In Medan, police fire live ammunition at fleeing looters. The renewed violence is prompted by Suharto's raising of fuel and electricity prices. (See also April 25, March 26, February 2.) In Austria, the first national day of remembrance for victims of the Holocaust is held on the anniversary of the liberation of Mauthausen concentration camp. The day is marked by a performance in parliament of an operatic version of "The Diary of Anne Frank", composed by Grigory Fried.

1998 May 6 In southern Italy, a series of mudslides caused by torrential rain devastates a number of towns, including Sarno, Caserta, and Avellino in the Campania region. The mudslides claim the lives of at least 130 people, and injure many more. Entire villages are submerged beneath the tides of mud which flow unhindered down the mountainside, because vegetation, which might have slowed its progress, was burnt away in previous forest fires. It is not known how many people remain buried and a definitive death toll is not expected for several days. In Pamplona, Spain, the Basque separatist group ETA shoot dead Tomas Caballero, a town councillor. Caballero is the fifth councillor to be killed by ETA since their campaign against Popular Party members began in July 1997. In the U.S.A., Interior Minister Bruce Babbitt announces that the bald eagle is to be officially removed from the endangered species list. The eagle is a heraldic symbol of American strength and the country's national bird. It has been recognized as an endangered species since 1967.

1998 May 7 In Denmark, parliament votes to intervene to end the country's longest strike in 13 years. Members of Parliament pass a bill that allows government intervention to resolve the dispute. The strike has halted production of manufactured goods, as well as transport and construction industries, since it began on April 27. In the U.S.A., it is announced by officials in the Pentagon that the remains of a soldier interred in The Tomb of the Unknowns in Arlington National Cemetery are to be exhumed in the hope of a successful identification. It is hoped that DNA testing will confirm the Vietnam veteran in the tomb was Lieutenant Michael Blassie.

1998 May 8 In Kushpur, Pakistan, police open fire on a group of more than 2,000 people who gather to carry the coffin of Roman Catholic Bishop John Joseph to Faisalabad Cathedral. Several people are injured in the violence. The mourners are angry at the death of Bishop Joseph, who killed himself in protest against the passing of a death sentence on a young Catholic man who had allegedly praised Salman Rushdie and thus contravened Pakistan's strict blasphemy laws. In Oppido Mamertina, in southern Italy, four people are shot dead and two others are injured in what is believed to be a feud between rival Mafia gangs. Among the dead is an eight-year-old girl, who is caught in the crossfire.

1998 May 9 In Birmingham, in the United Kingdom, the annual Eurovision song contest is won by Israel, their first victory in the competition since 1979. Israel's representative, Dana International, is the first transsexual to perform in the contest. She wins by a margin of only 6 points over the United Kingdom. Malta wins third place. In Algiers, a bomb explodes near a market in the Bab el Oued district, injuring more than 15 people. The bomb is believed to be the work of a pro-Islamist group, but no-one has yet claimed responsibility.5

1998 May 10 In South Africa, the president of the South African Rugby Football Association (Sarfu), who had been criticized for attempting to maintain white supremacy in the game, resigns. Louis Luyt takes this action to avoid disruption of the team's forthcoming fixtures by members of the National Sports Council. In Sarno, Italy, the coffins of 95 victims of this month's mudslides are laid out in the town's football stadium for a mass funeral. Among the thousands of mourners are President Oscar Scalfaro and Prime Minister Romano Prodi. (See also May 6.) In Memphis, U.S.A., a five-year-old boy is arrested when his nursery school teacher discovers a semi-automatic handgun in his possession. The boy acquired the gun from his grandfather's bedroom and was intending to use it to shoot his teacher and classmates.

1998 May 11 In Pokhran, west India, the government carries out three underground nuclear tests, its first for 24 years. The controlled explosions are condemned by the international community, who fear a new Asian nuclear arms race. Pakistan immediately vows to strengthen its own defences in response to India's expansion of nuclear arms. In Paraguay, Raul Cubas Grau is elected president, succeeding Juan Carlos Wasmosy. Grau, of the ruling Colorado party, wins amid controversy, as the opposition Democratic Alliance accuse the vote of being rigged. About 85 per cent of the electorate vote in the elections. In the southern port of Kismayu in Somalia, at least 14 people are killed and 25 more injured when violence breaks out between rival factions. The fighting begins as the Majertein clan advances northward and, after battles with the Marehan clan, captures the town of Kansuma.

1998 May 12 In Ankara, Turkey, the president of the Human Rights Association (HRA) is shot six times by two gunmen who enter his offices in the city centre. Akin Birdal is rushed to hospital where his condition is described as critical. Hundreds of people gather outside the hospital to chant anti-government slogans, in protest against the lack of protection afforded Birdal in the weeks before the shooting. In Madrid, Spain, Cristina Sanchez becomes the first woman to receive a doctorate of bullfighting. In a ceremony at Las Ventas bullring, she is confirmed as a matador before going on to fight and kill two bulls, in front of an audience of tens of thousands. In Bogota, Colombia, former defence minister General Fernando Landazabal Reyes is shot dead in a street attack. The shooting is thought to be the work of a political opponent of Reyes who was backing General Harold Bedoya in the country's presidential elections.

1998 May 13 In Jakarta, Indonesia, at least 10 people are killed and more than 25 injured in the worst mob violence in the city's history. Shops, houses, and vehicles are looted and set alight as angry crowds continue to protest in the streets against President Suharto's regime. Nine ethnic Chinese are attacked in their shops and burn to death when their premises are set alight. Riot police open fire on the crowds with live ammunition, killing at least one person, in an attempt to bring the chaos to an end. Other major Indonesian cities also see gatherings of tens of thousands of protestors, all demanding the resignation of President Suharto. (See also May 5.) In New York, thousands of taxi drivers go on strike for the first time in protest over police initiatives against bad driving, which include fines for cab drivers who are rude to their customers. The strike, which is organized by the New York Taxi Workers Alliance, is the first of a series of actions planned to bring about a repeal of the new laws. In Stockholm, Chelsea Football Club of the United Kingdom win the U.E.F.A. cup with a 1-0 victory over VfB Stuttgart of Germany. The winning goal is scored by Gianfranco Zola in the 71st minute of the game.

1998 May 14 American singer Frank Sinatra dies in hospital in Los Angeles at the age of 82 following a heart attack. His death is mourned throughout the world and particularly in the U.S.A., where he is remembered as the greatest entertainer of all time. "Ol' Blue Eyes", as he was affectionately called, recorded more than 2,000 songs and appeared in more than 50 films, including "From Here to Eternity" for which he won an Academy Award. In Israel, eight people are killed and more than 100 injured as Israeli troops open fire on Palestinians protesting against Israel's fiftieth anniversary celebrations. The violence breaks out in Gaza and along the West Bank as troops attempt to suppress Palestinian demonstrations. An eight-year-old boy is among those killed. In Mexico, environmental officials announce that the country's worst forest fires for more than 50 years continue to burn out of control across Mexico. The fires are already threatening large areas of rainforest, and have created a blanket of smoke that is affecting southern states of the U.S.A. Weather forecasts show that no rain is due in the near future to help douse the flames. In Paris, a gold-leafed cap is finally put in place on top of an ancient Egyptian obelisk, erected more than 150 years ago in the Place de la Concorde. The obelisk, which dates from the 700's B.C., was installed in Paris in 1836, but has only now been completed with the addition of the 3.6-metre-high cap.

1998 May 15 In Birmingham, in the United Kingdom, the leaders of the U.S.A., Germany, France, Italy, Canada, Japan, Russia, and the United Kingdom gather for the annual G8 summit. The summit was intended to address the financial crisis in Asia over the past 12 months and the Northern Irish peace process, but instead concentrates on the turmoil in Indonesia and the issue of nuclear weapons on the Indian subcontinent. The summit is scheduled to last for three days. Thousands of Christians gather in Lahore, Pakistan, to demonstrate against blasphemy laws that prompted the suicide of a Catholic bishop. Police use tear gas and sticks to disperse the protesters. More than 25 people are injured and at least 12 are arrested. (See also May 8.)

1998 May 16 Officials in midwestern U.S.A. announce that tornadoes, hail, high winds, and thunder have caused the death of at least one person and injured 65 more over a 24-hour period. The worst damage is recorded in Iowa where homes and apartment blocks are destroyed and power supplies throughout the region are affected. More than 50,000 people gather in front of the venue of the G8 summit in Birmingham, United Kingdom, to stage a protest against the repayment of outstanding debts by developing countries. The demonstration, organized by the Jubilee 2000 Coalition, sees protesters join hands to form a 10-kilometre-long human chain, at least four people deep, that circles the summit site. They then hand in a petition signed by more than 1.5 million people calling for a cancellation of Third World debt in time for the millennium. (See also May 15.)

1998 May 17 In the region of Krasnoyarsk, Siberia, Alexander Lebed wins election to the post of governor. General Lebed, 48, is widely regarded as the most dangerous opponent to Yeltsin-backed anti-Communist candidates in the presidential elections scheduled for the year 2000. In Jaffna, Sri Lanka, the country's first female mayor is shot dead in her home by Tamil Tiger guerrillas. Sarojini Yogeswaran was the first mayor to be elected in the town for 15 years, following the recapturing of Jaffna from Tamil separatists by the Sri Lankan Army in 1996.

1998 May 18 In Jakarta, Indonesia, a mass funeral is held for 200 people killed in the violence of the past week. The bodies of those killed in department store fires, begun by rioters, remain unidentifiable and are buried in a cemetery east of the city. Many more have been killed in the violence of the past week, and the cost of the damage in Jakarta is estimated at 270 million U.S. dollars. (See also May 13, 5, April 25, March 26, February 2.) In Teheran, Iran, the head and leather boot of an Iron Age man go on display in the National Museum. The remains of the "Salt Man", so named because of his discovery in a saltmine in 1994, are 2,500 years old. The head, torso, and leg of the man, who is thought to have been about 40 years old when he died, are very well preserved because of the salt in which he had been buried.

1998 May 19 In Saudi Arabia, two British nurses convicted of the murder of a fellow nurse have their sentences commuted by King Fahd and are freed. Deborah Parry and Lucille McLauchlan were jailed for the murder of Yvonne Gilford in December 1996, and Parry had been sentenced to death. Gilford's brother waived the death penalty for compensation of 1.1 million U.S. dollars, allowing King Fahd to commute the sentences under Saudi law. (See also November 30, 1997.) In the southern Yugoslavian republic of Montenegro, President Slobodan Milosevic nominates opposition leader Momir Bulatovic as federal prime minister, prompting a political crisis. Milosevic is accused of deliberately undermining the Democratic Party of Socialists' government in the republic. It is feared that Bulatovic's election could cause the final breakdown of the Yugoslav federation. In Colombia, a series of demonstrations takes place across the country, in protest against continued political violence. The protests are targeted at paramilitary and guerrilla groups who have been behind recent massacres and assassinations. In Bogota and other major cities, hundreds of thousands of residents join hands and march through the streets, bearing placards pleading for peace.

1998 May 20 In Russia, protesting miners continue to block the country's major railway routes for the sixth day, in protest against the government's delay in paying their wages. Thousands of miners, many of whom have not been paid for months, prevent more than 300 passenger and freight trains from travelling. They occupy the main Trans-Siberian line in the central province of Kemerovo, the southern line in the province of Rostov-on-Don, and the line servicing the Arctic mining centre of Vorkuta. In Amsterdam, Spanish football club Real Madrid beat Juventus, of Italy, in the final of the European Cup. The winning goal is scored by Predrag Mijatovic in the 67th minute, securing the club's seventh Cup victory in four decades.

1998 May 21 In Indonesia, President Suharto announces from the presidential palace in Jakarta that he is to resign. He steps down after 6 weeks of violent protest against his authority, and is replaced by his vice-president, Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie. The announcement prompts widespread celebrations throughout the country. (See also May 18, 13, 5, April 25, March 26, February 2.) In Springfield, Oregon, U.S.A., a 15-year-old boy shoots dead his parents before entering his school and opening fire indiscriminately on his schoolmates. Kipland Kinkel enters the Thurston High School cafeteria at 8 am, armed with a semiautomatic rifle and two handguns, and begins shooting randomly at the crowd of 400 students gathered there. Two people are killed and more than 23 others injured before a student is able to wrestle Kinkel to the floor and restrain him until police arrive. More than 200 Muslim gunmen enter the government building in the Russian region of Dagestan, taking over the State Council building and demanding the resignation of the region's government. They tear down the republic's flag and replace it with an Islamic banner, and leave after looting the building. They are supported by more than 2,000 sympathizers who gather outside the government building.

1998 May 22 In Lisbon, Portugal, the last world exhibition of the millennium, Expo 98, opens. The exhibition celebrates the United Nation's Year of Oceans, as well as the 500th anniversary of Vasco de Gama's arrival in India. The highlights of the exhibition, which is set to continue until September 30, include a virtual-reality dive, re-creations of gardens from the 1400's, and a massive aquarium in the form of a boat. In central Bolivia, at least 85 people are killed as the country's most powerful earthquake this century flattens the towns of Totora and Aiquile. The quake measures 6.8 on the Richter scale, and leaves more than 1,000 people homeless, with many people still missing. A landslide blocks the road to Aiquile, where the quake was centred, making rescue attempts difficult. In Jakarta, Indonesia, armed troops finally expel students who have been occupying the parliament building for a week. The student movement is regarded as largely responsible for the downfall of Suharto's thirty-year reign as president. (See also May 21, 13, 5, April 25, March 26, February 2.)

1998 May 23 The results of the Northern Ireland referendum on the Good Friday Peace Agreement are announced, with more than 71 per cent voting to accept the terms of the deal. In the Irish Republic, a simultaneous referendum to accept an amendment to the country's constitution as part of the agreement is approved by 94 per cent of voters. The result of the referenda shows the first agreement of Nationalists and Unionists in Ireland's troubled history. In Tehran, thousands of people gather outside Tehran University to hear President Mohammad Khatami give a speech to mark his first year in power. Khatami was elected last year with a landslide majority, and remains hugely popular among Iran's large youth population.

1998 May 24 An explosion in a church in Illinois, U.S.A., injures more than 30 people, 10 of them seriously. The blast takes place during a church service in the town of Danville. It is believed that many of those injured are teenagers. The cause of the explosion is under investigation. In Popayan, Colombia, more than 300 prisoners escape when the San Isidro jail is attacked by left-wing guerrillas. Two prisoners and a guard are killed as the guerrillas, armed with guns and dynamite, surround the prison and later seize it. In Russia, a 10-day blockade of the Trans-Siberian Railway is lifted as the government promises to pay the protesting coal miners their overdue wages by July 1. The blockades in Kemerovo and Rostov-on-Don are lifted, but the block to the Arctic-link line continues. (See also May 20.)

1998 May 25 In Australia, the New South Wales state government announces plans to find a new Aboriginal name for Botany Bay National Park as a token of reconciliation between white and black Australians. The announcement comes on the eve of the country's first "Sorry Day", which is hoped will highlight past injustices to indigenous Australians and help promote toleration and forgiveness. In India, a heatwave in which temperatures have risen as high as 46 degrees Celsius enters its fourth day. The intense heat has already caused 111 deaths, 48 of them in Rajasthan. Frequent electricity failures are exacerbating the problems. Environmentalists blame the intense heat on deforestation, urban growth, and inadequate measures to combat pollution.

1998 May 26 On a state visit to London, the Emperor and Empress of Japan are greeted by more than 1,500 protesters as they process down the Mall in the company of Queen Elizabeth II. The demonstrators, many of them World War II veterans or their relatives, turn their backs on Emperor Akihito's carriage and boo him. They are angry that the emperor has so far failed formally to apologise to former prisoners of war, captured by the Japanese during World War II. The Japanese constitution forbids Akihito from making the type of apology sought. In France, truckdrivers blockade several major highways in the continuation of industrial action that has disrupted the country for several months. The drivers demand increased wages and the implementation of a deal that was struck with haulage firms in 1997. (See also November 7, 1997.) Tom Whittaker from Portmadoc, in North Wales, becomes the first disabled climber to reach the summit of Mount Everest. Whittaker lost his right foot in a car accident in 1979. This was his third attempt to scale the mountain.

1998 May 27 In South Korea, more than 120,000 workers, affiliated to a total of 125 unions, begin a strike action against rising unemployment. The Korean Confederation of Trade Unions (KCTU) announces that the action is due to last for two days but will be extended if the government uses force against them. In Senegal, opposition parties petition the constitutional court for the scrapping of parliamentary election results on the grounds of fraud. President Abdou Diouf's Socialist Party is accused of "fraudulent practices" by using surplus voting cards to rig the vote, which took place on May 24. The final result of the count is to be announced on May 29.

1998 May 28 In Munich, Felix Somm, a former head of CompuServe online services in Germany, is convicted of aiding and abetting the spread of child pornography and is given a two-year suspended sentence. Somm's conviction is the first time an Internet service provider has been held responsible for the content of the Internet. In Pakistan, five nuclear devices are detonated at underground sites near the Iran-Pakistan border, prompting further international fears of an Asian arms race following India's nuclear tests earlier this month. Pakistan President Rafiq Tarar calls a state of emergency, citing the aggression of India's nuclear stance for his actions. (See also May 11.)

1998 May 29 Barry Goldwater, former senator and founder of modern American conservatism, dies at his home in Arizona, aged 89. He had been ill for some time and was diagnosed as having Alzheimer's disease in 1997. President Bill Clinton pays tribute to him and flags across the country fly at half-mast. In Harare, Zimbabwe, hundreds of student protestors are dispersed by riot police armed with teargas and truncheons. More than 2,000 students had blockaded the Parliament building in the capital for the past two days, calling for President Robert Mugabe to follow Indonesian President Suharto's example of relinquishing power.

1998 May 30 In Afghanistan, an earthquake measuring 7.1 on the Richter scale destroys 36 villages in the northeast of the country, causing the deaths of more than 3,000 people. The earthquake triggers off a series of further landslides that hamper rescue attempts. More than 30,00 people are left homeless by the quake, which is the second devastating tremor in the country in 4 months. (See also February 4.) In Geneva, hundreds of children march through the city's streets as "The Global March" against child labour reaches its climax. The children, from Asia, Africa, Europe, and Latin America, are joined by hundreds more adult campaigners for the final leg of the march which began in January in the Philippines, Brazil, and South Africa. (See also April 14.)

1998 May 31 In London, lawyers representing the members of The Spice Girls pop group announce that Geri Halliwell, known as "Ginger Spice", has left the band. Halliwell, regarded as the unofficial leader of the band, cites differences between herself and other band members as her reason for leaving. The four remaining members of the group pledge to complete their world tour. In northeastern U.S.A., a series of 12 tornadoes rip through New York, Massachusetts, and Vermont, injuring more than 10 people and destroying homes, roads, and cutting off electricity supplies. Yesterday, this extreme weather system caused the deaths of six people when a tornado struck in South Dakota, wiping out the town of Spencer, and injuring more than 150 people.

1998 June 1 In Cuba, Australian swimmer Susie Maroney reaches shore after swimming 197 kilometres from Mexico, setting a new world record in unassisted ocean swimming. Maroney swims the distance inside a cage towed behind a boat, in order to be safe from sharks and jellyfish. The swim took more than 38 hours to complete. In Harare, Zimbabwe, more than 200 students protesting against President Robert Mugabe's regime begin a violent protest. Several shop windows are smashed before police arrive to disperse the protesters. The students are trying to oust Mugabe in the same way as President Suharto of Indonesia was ousted last month. In Hengelo, in the Netherlands, Haile Gebrselassie sets a new world record for running 10,000 metres, completing the distance in 26 minutes 22.75 seconds. Gebrselassie, of Ethiopia, regains the record from Paul Tergat of Kenya. In Lusaka, Zambia, former president Kenneth Kaunda is cleared of charges of concealing knowledge of a coup against the government. Kaunda, who spent the last five months under house arrest, is cheered by dozens of supporters as he leaves the Lusaka High Court.

1998 June 2 In Tehran, Iran, an explosion inside a revolutionary Islamic court kills at least two people and injures six more. The Iranian opposition group Mujahedin-e Khalq claims responsibility for the blast, but Iran's official news agency blames negligent handling of explosives which were to be used as evidence in court. International aid agencies report that thousands of Albanians are fleeing the Serbian province of Kosovo as violence continues in the area. Serb forces have recently intensified their attempts to extinguish separatist movements among ethnic Albanians, forcing more than 2,000 Albanians out of Kosovo in the past 48 hours. Many thousands more have been displaced within Kosovo.

1998 June 3 A high speed Munich-Hamburg express train crashes in Eschede, Germany, killing more than 100 people and injuring 200 other passengers. The crash is believed to have been caused by a fault in one of the train's wheels, which caused it to derail and smash into a bridge spanning the track. The crash is the worst of its kind in Germany in more than 30 years. In Turkey, Prime Minister Mesut Yilmaz announces his intention to resign at the end of the year. A general election will be held in April 1999. His agreement to step down is taken after a meeting with Deniz Baykal of the Republican People's Party, who had agreed to back Yilmaz's government on the condition that he called early elections. In Tunisia, two men are each sentenced to 25 years imprisonment for their part in the assassination of former Belgian prime minister Andre Cools in 1991. Abdelmajid al Almi and Abdeljelil Ben Brahim are found guilty of manslaughter.

1998 June 4 In Bulgaria, the country's exiled King Simeon II is given back his family estate by order of the Bulgarian Constitutional Court. The royal estate was seized in 1946 when the royal family fled the country's new communist leaders. In India, the death toll from the recent heatwave rises to more than 1,300 as temperatures reach more than 49 degrees Celsius. In the eastern state of Orissa, more than 600 people have been killed by dehydration and heat stroke. Recurring power breakdowns have hindered hospitals providing treatment. In Victoria Park, Hong Kong, thousands of people gather to commemorate the ninth anniversary of the Tiananmen Square massacre. Their candle-lit vigil is the first mourning of the victims of the massacre permitted on Chinese soil.

1998 June 5 In eastern Africa, a border dispute between Eritrea and Ethiopia descends into war, as Eritrean planes bomb the city of Mekele, killing at least 20 people and injuring hundreds more. Ethiopia responds by bombing the Eritrean capital, Asmara, and Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi threatens Eritrea that "enough is enough". In Congo (Brazzaville), services are held to commemorate the first anniversary of the beginning of the country's civil war. In Brazzaville, the foundation stone of a commemorative plaque is laid in honour of more than 15,000 people who died during the struggle.

1998 June 6 In Istanbul, Turkey, a bomb explodes in the offices of the Democratic Turkey Party, but there are no injuries. The bomb is the latest incident in recent political violence that began in the country after a leftist rally on May 1st. The Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) militia group announce that they have kidnapped two French fishermen who were sailing off the Somali coast. The SSDF claim the men were sailing in Somali waters and endangering local fishermen, and are holding the men at a base in Bossaso. In London, more than 8,000 people gather in two locations to stage simultaneous demonstrations against traffic congestion and overuse of cars in the United Kingdom. The protest, organized by the pressure group Reclaim the Streets, blocks roads into the city centre and causes massive traffic congestion.

1998 June 7 In New York, Brooklyn Supreme Court sentences Darrel Harris to death for the murder of three people in 1996. The death penalty was reinstated in New York State in 1995, and Harris will be the first person to be executed since Eddie Lee Mays, in 1963. In Paris, the French Open tennis tournament comes to an end, with Carlos Moya beating Alex Corretja in an all-Spanish Men's Singles final. The Women's Singles final is won by Arantxa Sanchez-Vicario, also of Spain, who beats Monica Seles of the U.S.A. by two sets to one. In Pakistan, at least 23 people are killed and 32 more injured when a bomb explodes on an express train travelling from Karachi to Peshawar. The blast occurs as the train passes through Khairpur in Sindh province. Some officials blame India for the bomb, heightening tensions between the two countries in the aftermath of their rival nuclear testing. (See also May 28, 11.)

1998 June 8 General Sani Abacha, president of Nigeria, dies of a heart attack at the age of 54. Abacha seized power in Nigeria in 1993 in a military coup, and had led the country as a dictator since then, although promising a return to civilian rule. He is buried at his birthplace of Kano in the north of the country. In London, thousands of fans of Linda McCartney gather in Trafalgar Square to celebrate her life, as her husband Paul and a host of celebrities attend a memorial service nearby. Among the guests at the church service are former Beatles George Harrison and Ringo Starr, who have not been seen in public with McCartney since 1969. (See also April 17.)

1998 June 9 In Nigeria, the country's new military leader, General Abdulsalam Abubakar, promises to return his country to civilian rule on October 1 of this year. In his first address to the nation as head of state, Abubakar promises a return to democracy, amid calls by the opposition for the people to take to the streets in protest. (See also June 8.) In Taiwan, the 31st victim of a virus that is sweeping the country dies. The viral disease affects children under the age of five, and it is believed that more than half a million children could be affected. In Taipei, the government calls together a team of experts to set out plans for monitoring and treating the illness. In Hong Kong, torrential rains devastate rural areas of the northern New Territories, and affect much of the country. One person is missing and eight more are injured. More than 15 landslides and waters up to 1.5 metres deep prevent many businesses from opening, and disrupt road, rail, and air traffic.

1998 June 10 In Paris, the 1998 World Cup finals commence, with the Stade de France hosting a spectacular opening ceremony, followed by the first game of the tournament between Brazil and Scotland. Brazil win the first game of the 33-day football tournament, beating Scotland 2-1. In India, a cyclone strikes the west of the country, centring on the state of Gujarat. More than 800 people are killed, many of them salt workers in the Kutch region, and power supplies are cut off. Winds reaching 120 kilometres per hour and tidal waves more than 2 metres high batter the coastline. The cost of damage is estimated at 284 million U.S. dollars. In Dili, East Timor, thousands of people protest against Indonesian President B. J. Habibie's plans for the territory. They demand a ballot on independence and reject Habibie's plans to grant the territory "special status". In Jakarta, thousands more demonstrate through the capital after the Indonesian currency hits a new low.

1998 June 11 Dame Catherine Cookson, one of the United Kingdom's most popular novelists, dies at her home in Newcastle at the age of 91. Cookson wrote 85 bestselling novels, which realised sales of more than 100 million copies. In Pakistan, the government announces a unilateral halt to nuclear tests in an effort to end hostilities with India. Indian officials welcome the gesture and propose negotiations with Pakistan to bring about an end to the nuclear threat currently existing between the neighbouring countries. (See also June 7, May 28, 11.)

1998 June 12 In the United Kingdom, a 69-year-old man is cleared of a murder conviction passed in 1975, for which he has served 23 years in prison. Patrick Nicholls was imprisoned for the murder of his friend, Gladys Heath, but is cleared by the Court of Appeal after pathologists' evidence that helped convict him is proven to be flawed. It is announced by archaeologists in Shardlow, United Kingdom, that a 3,300 year old Bronze Age boat has been uncovered in a local Derbyshire quarry. The 10.5-metre-long boat was still carrying its original load of building stone, and is believed to have sunk in turbulent waters. It is one of the best preserved examples of Bronze Age water transportation. In Budapest, the men's world chess champion Anatoly Karpov meets Judit Polgar, the female world champion, in a speed-match challenge. Polgar, of Hungary, beats Russian Karpov 5-3 in the first meeting of the male and female champions of the game.

1998 June 13 In Australia, controversial politician Pauline Hanson's One Nation Party wins almost 25 per cent of votes in a Queensland state election. The shock result of the election shows that support is growing for anti-immigration member of parliament Hanson. The One Nation party will now take up to 12 seats in the state parliament in Brisbane. The organizers of World Cup 1998 begin an investigation into massive ticket fraud where thousands of fans paid for tickets that they never received. Football fans from Japan, Holland, Brazil, Germany, and the United Kingdom have been affected by the fraud. Interpol (International Criminal Police Organization) is also to investigate the trade of "ghost" tickets.

1998 June 14 In Marseilles, France, hundreds of English and Tunisian football fans clash in a day of violence that culminates in the hurling of bottles and glasses. Riot police use tear gas and batons to disperse the supporters, and more than 100 arrests are made. The violence, blamed in part on heavy alcohol consumption, continues for several hours. In Brazil, 12 people are killed and 16 others injured as a bus and truck collide on a road near Frutao. A third vehicle then crashes into the bus, killing 8 of the Paraguayan tourists on board. All three drivers of the vehicles are also killed. A tour guide later dies in hospital. Five Scottish seamen are killed when their trawler is hit by a German coaster in the North Sea, about 48 kilometres from the Danish shore. The crew of the Silvery Sea vessel have not yet been recovered, following the accident that sliced their boat in half.

1998 June 15 In Denmark, Queen Margrethe opens Europe's longest suspension bridge to traffic for the first time. The 6.8-kilometre-long bridge, which took 10 years to build at a cost of 5.6 billion US dollars, links eastern and western Denmark over the Great Belt waterway. In Iran, two earthquakes hit the provinces of Khorasan and Chahar Mahall-va-Bakhtiari, but no injuries are reported. The quakes measure 4.6 and 4.8 on the Richter scale, and are the latest in a series of tremors to hit the country in recent months. In Nigeria, General Abdulsalam Abubakar orders the release of nine political prisoners, signalling his intention to honour his promise to bring democracy to the country following the death of Sani Abacha. Of those released, two were prominent opposition activists, and one the former head of state, Olusegun Obasanjo. (See also June 8.)

1998 June 16 In Boston, U.S.A., the Massachusetts supreme court upholds the conviction of manslaughter on former nanny Louise Woodward, but rejects a plea for the reinstatement of her original murder conviction. Woodward's passport is released, and she is free to travel home to the United Kingdom as all appeals are finally concluded. After the announcement of the court's decision, the parents of the child she is accused of killing launch a civil suit against her. (See also March 9; November 10, 1997; October, 30 1997.) In Florida, U.S.A., the birth of a baby is filmed and transmitted live over the Internet for the first time. The 40-year-old mother of the baby boy allows the broadcast of the delivery because she wants to educate people about childbirth.

1998 June 17 In Bourkika, in the province of Tizapa, Algeria, a bomb explodes in a cemetery killing four people and injuring four others. The homemade explosive is the latest in a series of violence between rebels and troops over the past 11 days which has caused the deaths of 210 people. In Losiny village, in the Urals region of Russia, 6 soldiers are killed as lightning sets off an explosion at a munitions dump in a military base. More than 14 others are injured in the blast, which causes the evacuation of 3,000 villagers.

1998 June 18 In Russia, Deputy Prime Minister Anatoly Chubais issues a demand for international aid to help prevent the economic collapse of his country. The demand for 17 billion U.S. dollars from the International Monetary Union marks the first admittance from Russia that its economy is in danger of collapse. In Belgrade, Serbia, several hundred women march in protest against the government's continued military action in Kosovo. The women, who all have sons serving in the Serbian army, disperse peacefully, but their demonstration represents growing opposition to Serbia's offensive against ethnic Albanians in the Kosovo province. (See also April 22, March 31, 25, 22, 6,2.)

1998 June 19 In Guinea-Bissau, fighting intensifies between rebels and the army over control of the cannabis and tourism trades in Casamance, on the borders with Senegal. Senegalese planes bomb a border village, killing more than 100 people. It is believed that more than 80 per cent of the population of the capital city of Bissau has fled into the jungle to escape the violence. In India, five gunmen, believed to be militant Kashmiri separatists, ambush a wedding party who are returning to their homes in a village near Doda, in Jammu and Kashmir state. Twenty-five members of the wedding party, including the bridegroom, are shot dead and six others are injured.

1998 June 20 In Asmara, Eritrea, more than 100,000 people line the streets to welcome home the first group of Eritreans expelled from Ethiopia due to the current conflict. About 720 people who were released from the Ethiopian border three days ago reach the capital to a tumultuous welcome. (See also June 5.) In Sana, Yemen, hundreds of people take to the streets to protest against rising prices of fuel and food. Police fire into the air and use tear gas to disperse the demonstrations. Many of those protesting call for the resignation of Prime Minister Abd-al-Karim al-Iryani.

1998 June 21 In Moscow, a hurricane kills 6 people and injures more than 120 others. The winds uproot more than 5,000 trees, and destroy electricity, telephone, and tram lines. Thousands of troops are deployed to help clear the streets of debris. In the Czech Republic, the Social Democratic Party win the general election, garnering more than 32 per cent of votes. Their victory is, however, considered to be too narrow for them to form a viable government to replace that of Vaclav Klaus, which collapsed in November. Klaus's right-wing Civic Democratic Party gain 27 per cent of votes, but a coalition government between the two parties seems unlikely to succeed. (See also November 30, 1997.) In Colombia, the former mayor of Bogota, Andres Pastrana, wins the presidential election. Pastrana wins 50 per cent of the vote. His nearest rival, Horacio Serpa, has 46 per cent.

1998 June 22 A suspected North Korean spy submarine and its crew are captured off the north-east coast of South Korea after becoming entangled in fishing nets. The submarine is towed by a naval ship to the coast, but sinks before it reaches shore. The nine crew on board are found dead with gunshot wounds in what appears to be a group suicide. On Mount McKinley, in Alaska, U.S.A., two soldiers from the United Kingdom are rescued after spending four days stranded without a tent on the mountainside. The men survived at a height of 5,700 metres and temperatures of minus 27 degrees Celsius before being rescued by helicopter.

1998 June 23 In Valencia, Spain, a hijacked Iberia airlines plane with 130 people on board is reclaimed by police as the hijacker surrenders. The plane, which had been travelling from Seville to Barcelona, was taken over by Javier Gomez, who surrenders after speaking to a psychiatrist over the phone from the plane. In Phoenix, U.S.A., Irish-born actress Maureen O'Sullivan dies at the age of 87. Famous for her role as Jane in the Tarzan films of the 1930's and 1940's, she was also the mother of actress Mia Farrow. It is believed she died of a heart attack. In Romania, the Environment Ministry announces that more than 15,000 acres of land have been submerged by rising floodwaters. The floods, which mainly affected Transylvania and Moldova, were caused by a month of stormy weather which has brought hail and tornadoes to the regions.

1998 June 24 In Newtownhamilton, Northern Ireland, a bomb explodes injuring a teenage boy and damaging buildings. The bomb, thought to be the work of the Irish National Liberation Army, comes on the eve of Ulster's assembly elections. At Melrose Abbey in Scotland, the reburial of what is thought to be Robert the Bruce's heart is marked in a special ceremony, two years after it was rediscovered in the Abbey during an archaeological dig. The casket, containing the heart, has been in safekeeping in Edinburgh since then, but is finally laid to rest after more than 600 years. At least seventy people are killed as a plane crashes into mountains in northern Mexico. The plane, which had been travelling from Mazatlan to Chihuahua, crashes near the town of Cinco.

1998 June 25 In Xian, China, U.S. President Bill Clinton arrives to spend nine days touring the country. This is the first visit by an American president since the Tiananmen Square massacre in 1989. In Algeria, Muslim rebels murder 17 civilians in a village in Saida province. Hours later, another group murders the popular singer Lounes Matoub, an outspoken anti-Islamist, and injures his wife, in an attack that has been attributed to an Islamist terrorist group.

1998 June 26 In Texas, U.S.A., Henry Lee Lucas becomes the first person to successfully appeal for clemency against the death sentence since the punishment was restored in the state in 1982. Governor George Bush commutes Lee's sentence to life imprisonment on the grounds that he believes the conviction to be in doubt. In southern Lebanon, 60 Lebanese former prisoners of war held by Israel return home to a triumphant welcome. The return of the prisoners brings to an end a series of exchanges between the two countries that has been negotiated by the Red Cross and the U.S.A. The Nigerian military ruler, General Abubakar, announces the release of 17 political prisoners, bringing the total number of releases to more than 40. Abubakar has also begun negotiations with banned pro-democracy groups. (See also June 15.)

1998 June 27 In Dili, East Timor, thousands of people demonstrate in front of European Union representatives to show their opposition to Indonesian rule. The protestors throw stones at troops gathered outside the office of the Indonesian governor, and several of the building's windows are smashed. Troops disperse the crowds with tear gas and wooden clubs. (See also June 10.) In Louisiana, U.S.A., two tugboats collide on the Mississippi River spilling more than 262,200 U.S. gallons of crude oil. The spillage stops river traffic, and poses a threat to drinking water supplies and wildlife. A cleanup operation is begun, but is expected to take several days. In Ceyhan, southern Turkey, 112 people are killed when an earthquake measuring 6.3 on the Richter scale hits the town. Apartment blocks and houses are flattened, and many people flee the area as at least 16 aftershocks are registered.

1998 June 28 In the Berber region of Algeria, one man is killed as rioting breaks out at the funeral of singer Lounes Matoub. Tens of thousands of people attend the funeral, and youths attack government buildings. Troops respond with gunfire and a Berber man is killed. He is the fourth person to be killed in riots sparked by the murder of Matoub. (See also June 25.) A boat carrying more than 100 Arabs which had been drifting at sea for 12 days is rescued by a Ukrainian cargo ship and towed to shore. Those aboard had been without food and water, and two of their fellow passengers had died during the ordeal. The Syrian captain of the boat is placed under arrest for causing death by negligence.

1998 June 29 In Washington, U.S.A., the remains of an unknown soldier interred in the Tomb of the Unknowns are identified as those of Lieutenant Michael Blassie of the U.S. Air Force following DNA testing. (See also May 7.) Rudy Narayan, the Guyana-born lawyer and black rights activist, who spent his adult life in the United Kingdom, dies in hospital in London at the age of 60. In Stavelot, Belgium, a man is killed and 11 others injured as a truck carrying paint crashes and ignites, spreading flames over nearby buildings. More than a dozen houses are destroyed and toxic smoke engulfs the town centre. The accident is thought to have been caused by the failure of the truck's brakes.

1998 June 30 Tension between Iraq and the U.S.A. is heightened when U.S. aircraft bomb an anti-aircraft battery in the Iraqi port of Basra. The bombing is in retaliation against Iraq's targeting of British planes with hostile radar whilst they were performing a routine patrol mission over the air exclusion zone. In the province of Kosovo in Serbia, at least 10 ethnic Albanians are killed as government troops make an assault on the Belacevac coal mine near the regional capital of Pristina. A combined force of Serbian police, Yugoslav troops, and civilians reclaim the mine from the Kosovo Liberation Army after a three-day battle. (See also June 18, April 22, March 31, 25, 22, 6, 2.)

1998 July 1 In Belfast, Northern Ireland, the Ulster Unionist leader, the Rt. Hon David Trimble, shakes hands with Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) deputy leader, Seamus Mallon, in an historic showing of unity. Trimble and Mallon are elected First Minister [Designate] and Deputy First Minister [Designate] of the new Belfast assembly, which is set up on the terms laid out in the Good Friday agreement. (See also April 10.) In Hong Kong, the first anniversary of the former British colony's return to China is celebrated. More than 200 people are honoured by the country's new Order of the Bauhinia Star. It is announced by the Environmental Investigation Agency that the orang-utan will become extinct in the wild within 20 years unless strong action is taken immediately. The destruction of the orang-utan's habitat through forest fires in Indonesia has halved the animal's population over the last decade.

1998 July 2 In Florida, U.S.A., more than 35,000 people are evacuated from their homes as forest fires spread throughout the state. The fires, caused by lightning and temperatures of more than 38 degrees Celsius, have devastated more than 250,000 acres and destroyed hundreds of homes. They have been predicted to worsen with the weather forecast promising only a continuation in the hot temperatures that have helped fuel the fires. In Hong Kong, the country's new international airport is officially opened by China's President Jiang Zemin, who then becomes the first head of state to fly from it. The new Chek Lap Kok airport, which cost 21 billion U.S. dollars to construct, replaces the old Kai Tak airport. It is situated on an island and is linked to the mainland by the longest rail and road suspension bridge in the world. The main span of the bridge measures 1,377 metres. In Budapest, Hungary, a car bomb explodes on a main street of the capital, killing four people and wounding 25 others. The bombing is the latest incidence of the increasing violence in Budapest, which is blamed on gangland warfare.

1998 July 3 In New York, the world's tallest man dies in hospital at the age of 42. Alam Channa, from the Sindh province in Pakistan was 2.3 metres tall. He was in the U.S.A. for vital medical treatment, but lapsed into a coma before he could be operated on. In Gibraltar, the crew of the Cable and Wireless Adventurer boat complete a record-breaking circumnavigation of the globe by a powered vessel. After 74 days 20 hours 58 minutes, the boat comes to the end of its 42,000-kilometres journey, begun on April 19. The British crew beat the previous record, set by American submarine "Triton" in 1960, by more than 8 days. In countries across the eastern Mediterranean, temperatures rise as high as 48 degrees Celsius, causing 11 deaths and many more casualties. The heatwave affects Albania, Crete, Greece, Italy, Sicily, and Turkey, and hundreds of people are admitted to hospital with heart and respiratory problems.

1998 July 4 In Turkey, two earthquakes measuring 5.1 and 4.4 on the Richter scale strike southern Turkey, injuring at least 700 people. The quakes are centred on Ceyhan district, which was struck by a stronger quake last month. (See also June 27.) In London, Jana Novotna of Czechoslovakia beats Nathalie Tauziat of France, 6-4, 7-6, to win the women's singles title in the All-England (Wimbledon) tennis championships.

1998 July 5 In London, Pete Sampras of the United States beats Croatian Goran Ivanisevic by three sets to two to win the men's singles title in the All-England (Wimbledon) tennis championships. The victory gives Sampras 11 Grand slam singles titles, just one short of Roy Emerson's record. In Cyprus, Greece, Italy, and Sardinia, thousands of acres of forest are destroyed as fires sweep across the Mediterranean. Most of the fires have been caused by the heatwave that is currently affecting the area, although some have been started deliberately. Strong winds are fanning the blazes, causing them to spread rapidly and making it very difficult to bring them under control.

1998 July 6 American actor Roy Rogers, famous as the "King of the Cowboys", dies at his home in California at the age of 86. Rogers, born Leonard Slye, made more than 85 films and is remembered for his portrayal of an honest, singing, cowboy hero. In Australia, Aborigine groups hold a "national day of shame" in anticipation of the passing of a bill that will limit their rights to reclaim land originally belonging to them. Protesters plant a "sea of hands", a collection of cardboard shapes, outside Parliament House in Canberra. In the Indonesian archipelago of Irian Jaya, seven people are killed and more than 100 injured as a pro-independence protest is broken up by troops. Unrest breaks out on the island of Biak, prompting fears that the territory will break up.

1998 July 7 In Nigeria, Moshood Abiola, the presumed winner of the country's annulled 1993 elections and most prominent political prisoner, dies of a heart attack a day before he is due to be released from 4-years imprisonment. Abiola's death at the age of 60 prompts rioting in Lagos, as his supporters suspect his death may have been caused by the military government. In Milan, Italy, former prime minister Silvio Berlusconi is sentenced to two years and nine months imprisonment for complicity in bribing tax officials. He is already appealing against another corruption conviction and is facing trial on four further charges. He freed pending appeal against his latest sentence, which could take years to be heard. Under Italian law, Berlusconi is unlikely to spend any time in prison since his sentence is under three-and a-half years.

1998 July 8 In New Zealand, the government is ordered to return more than 6.1 million N.Z. dollars worth of land to the Maori people, following the intervention of the Waitangi Tribunal after government-Maori negotiations broke down. The land was confiscated from Maori ownership more than 30 years ago. This is the first time the tribunal has imposed compulsory recommendations. In London, a first edition copy of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales is sold at auction for 7.54 million U.S. dollars. The book was printed in England in about 1476 by William Caxton.

1998 July 9 In Lagos, Nigeria, it is announced that 45 people have died in rioting since the death of Moshood Abiola was announced. Gangs from southern Nigeria, from where Abiola came, clash with northern Hausa people. The government, which is mostly comprised of Hausa nationals, imposes a curfew on Abeokuta, Abiola's home town, after four people are killed. (See also July 7.) In Istanbul, an explosion in the Egyptian Bazaar, also known as the Spice Market, kills seven people and injures nearly 100 others. The cause of the blast is not known, but it is thought most likely to be a gas leak.

1998 July 10 In London, six people are arrested in four different locations on suspicion of terrorism charges as explosive devices are discovered just minutes before they are due to be detonated. Simultaneous arrests are made in Ireland, and police suspect the attempted bombing to be the work of the Real IRA, an Irish republican group opposed to the peace treaty. In Poland, the government declares a flood alert in the provinces of Krosno, Rzeszow, and Przemysl in the southeast of the country. Heavy rains are threatening to wreak havoc in the area, and several people are evacuated from their homes as a precautionary measure.

1998 July 11 In Nigeria, the results of the post-mortem examination of Moshood Abiola are announced, with the team of international pathologists concluding that his death was due to natural causes. Abiola's remains are buried below a coconut tree at his home in the Ikeja district of Lagos, as more than 20,000 people crowd the streets around his house to mourn his death. Police in KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa, announce that a total of 18 people have been killed within a week in a series of politically motivated killings. In the latest attack, five people are shot dead in Magoda township, near Richmond, as they sit around a cooking fire. A three-year-old child is among the dead. Police blame the violence on increasing conflict between the ANC and the newly formed United Democratic Movement. In Sarajevo and Tuzla, Bosnia, the families of more than 8,000 Muslim men still missing, presumed dead, after the massacre in Srebrenica three years ago, march in protest. The women demonstrators demand to know the true fate of the men who went missing on July 11, 1995, in what is believed to be Europe's worst atrocity since World War II.

1998 July 12 In Ballymoney, Northern Ireland, three boys aged eight, nine, and ten are killed when a petrol bomb is thrown into their home. The Quinn brothers, Jason, Mark, and Richard, are the victims of sectarian hatred. They lived on a Protestant estate but had a Catholic mother. In the aftermath of the deaths, appeals from both Catholics and Protestants are made to Protestant Orangemen, protesting in Drumcree against a re-routing of their annual march, to call off their week-long action which had prompted widespread violence culminating in the Ballymoney tragedy. In Paris, the final of the World Cup sees France beat the holders Brazil in a surprise 3-0 victory. More than 2 billion people watch the football game on televisions around the world, as France claim their first World Cup trophy. Zinedine Zidane scores twice for France in the first half of the game, and Emmanuel Petit scores the third goal just before the final whistle.

1998 July 13 In Japan, Prime Minister Ryutaro Hashimoto resigns after his party loses support in upper house elections. Hashimoto's decision to resign after two-and-a-half years in power augurs badly for Japan, as experts predict that political instability can only worsen the country's economic problems. In Paris, more than a million fans of the national football team line the streets as the French team bear the World Cup trophy though the city centre. The celebrations are thought to be the biggest street gathering in the country since it regained its freedom from German occupation at the end of World War II. In Italy, former prime minister Silvio Berlusconi receives his second prison sentence within a week for passing a bribe to the country's Socialist party. He is sentenced to two years and four months imprisonment. (See also July 7.)

1998 July 14 Richard McDonald, cofounder of the McDonalds fast-food restaurant, now the world's largest restaurant chain, dies at the age of 89. In Rome, Hicham El Guerrouj of Morocco sets a new world record for running 1,500 metres, completing the distance in 3 minutes 26 seconds at the IAAF Golden Gala athletics meeting. In New Delhi, India, women gather outside parliament to protest against the deferment of a bill that would have ensured a third of parliamentary and state assembly seats would be reserved for female politicians. The speaker of the Lok Sabha, the lower house of parliament, postponed the introduction of such legislation after it prompted outrage.

1998 July 15 In Sudan, the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) announce a three-month ceasefire in hostilities with the government in order to allow aid deliveries of food to hundreds of thousands of people currently facing famine in southwest Bahr al-Ghazal province. The government reciprocates the gesture by agreeing to a month's ceasefire. In Nigeria, the government orders the immediate release of hundreds of political prisoners, jailed during the military rule of Sani Abacha. The Lagos Press also reports that the government is planning to annul legislative elections held by Abacha, and is preparing for new, fair elections. (See also July 9, 7.)

1998 July 16 In China, rescue attempts are continuing in the province of Sichuan following a bus crash two days earlier. The bus was swept into the flood-swollen Ouxi River. One body has been found and 20 other passengers are missing, feared dead. Floods caused by heavy rains have already killed 760 people in southern China this summer. In the Dhakar district of Nayabazar, Bangladesh, fifty people are injured in clashes with the police as a half-day strike turns violent. The strike, led by Begum Khaleda Zia of the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), is broken up when anti government protesters attack police with stones and homemade bombs. Police use tear gas and batons to disperse the protest.

1998 July 17 In the Cathedral of Saint Peter and Saint Paul in Saint Petersburg, Russia, the remains of some of the Romanov family, murdered in 1918 by Bolshevik revolutionaries, are buried in a historic ceremony attended by President Boris Yeltsin. The interment of Czar Nicholas, his wife Alexandra, and three of their four daughters is seen as a symbol of Russia's attempts to unify its people. In South Africa, the government announces the release of more than 9,000 prisoners as a gesture to mark the 80th birthday of Nelson Mandela. Sipho Mzimela, the country's Correctional Services minister, said the release of prisoners will begin on July 20th. More than 3,000 people are feared dead as 10-metre-high waves devastate the remote northern coast of Papua New Guinea, destroying seven villages and damaging many more. The waves, or tsunami, are caused by two submarine earthquakes in the Pacific Ocean measuring 7.0 on the Richter scale. Thousands of people are injured, and many more left homeless.

1998 July 18 In Johannesburg, South Africa, President Nelson Mandela celebrates his eightieth birthday by marrying Graca Machel, widow of the former president of Mozambique, Samora Machel. The couple are married in civil and religious ceremonies. In Lassing, Austria, 11 men are feared dead as the mine in which they are working collapses. Ten of the men were in the pit to try to rescue a miner who had become trapped by an earlier, minor mudslide. The mudslides leave a crater more than 45 metres deep and 135 metres in diameter, and more than 200 people are evacuated from the area as houses begin to collapse.

1998 July 19 In Lassing, Austria, more than 300 people attend a memorial service for 11 men killed in the country' worst mining disaster since World War II. Officials believe the mine will now be closed permanently. (See also July 26, 18.)

1998 July 20 In the Caribbean state of St Kitts and Nevis, the state's first hanging in 17 years is carried out, in spite of international protests. David Wilson, convicted in 1996 for the murder of Kenneth Herbert, is hanged at dawn. In the U.S.A., a nation-wide heatwave continues unabated, having already claimed 113 lives. Temperatures in Dallas, Texas, have reached more than 38 degrees Celsius, the hottest for almost two decades. The weather is forecast to continue for at least another week, spreading further east across the country. In eastern Slovakia, heavy rain causes several small rivers to overflow, flooding at least 20 villages, and killing more than 19 people. Many more are missing and 16 of the dead are believed to be from the Romanov (Gypsy) village of Jarovnice. Most of the dead are children.

1998 July 21 In Macedonia, police announce that three bomb devices have exploded overnight, a day prior to the visit of NATO Secretary-General Javier Solana. Two of the devices explode on railway lines near the Yugoslav border, with the third bomb going off in the capital, Skopje. No injuries are reported. In Surrey, in the United Kingdom, Brian Milton claims the record of being the first person to circumnavigate the earth in a microlight craft. Milton's journey took 121 days to complete, and overflew 25 countries. His craft also became the first microlight to fly through Japan and China.

1998 July 22 Alan Shepard, the first U.S. astronaut in space, dies in hospital in California at the age of 74. He was suffering from leukaemia. Shepard manned his first spaceship in 1961. Ten years later, as commander of Apollo14, he became the fifth person to walk on the moon, and the only one to play golf in space. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, Bernard Mizele, a self-styled "Congo King", is sentenced to 20 years imprisonment and nine of his followers are sentenced to death for plotting to overthrow President Laurent Kabila. Mizele's "Congo Kingdom" is also outlawed by the military tribunal which tries him.

1998 July 23 In Chechnya, President Aslan Maskhadov survives an assassination attempt that kills one of his bodyguards and injures six others. Maskhadov blames Russia for organizing the attempt on his life, but it is believed the attack was organized by government opponents with Islamic links. In Tehran, Iran, the city's former mayor Gholamhossein Karbaschi is sentenced to five years in prison for embezzlement. He is also banned from politics for 20 years. His harsh sentence is viewed as an attempt by conservative opponents of President Mohamed Khatami to discredit the government. Karbaschi is a close friend and ally of the president.

1998 July 24 In Japan, Keizo Obuchi is elected as prime minister by his colleagues in the ruling Liberal Democratic Party. He wins by a majority of 123 votes over his nearest rival, Seiroku Kajiyama, and pledges to reconstruct the country's troubled economy. In the Capitol building in Washington, U.S.A., a gunman known to the authorities as a threat to the president opens fire indiscriminately, killing two police officers and injuring two other people. Russell Weston's gun triggers an alarm as he enters the building, which is full of tourists and members of the U.S. senate. Police chase him but are unable to prevent him opening fire. In Jamaica, a 13-year-old boy is made a youth technology consultant to the commerce and technology ministry, becoming the country's youngest ever government adviser. Makonnen David Blake Hannah, a computer whizz-kid, is responsible for informing the ministry of changing trends in computer technology, and representing the younger generation.

1998 July 25 In Bangladesh, the country's worst floods in more than a decade prompt a nation-wide relief and rescue operation. The floods, caused by heavy monsoon rains, have caused more than 100 deaths, and have affected more than 10 million people. In Turkey, Prime Minister Mesut Yilmaz announces his intention to seek parliamentary approval for an early general election. Yilmaz agreed with his opposition that the current coalition government should be dissolved to make way for an early election, to be held on April 25, 1999, a year earlier than expected.

1998 July 26 In Calais, France, Louis Bleriot attempts to recreate the historic flight over the English Channel first completed by his grandfather on July 25, 1909. Bleriot's wood-framed plane, a reproduction of the one used 89 years ago, crashes only minutes after takeoff and he has to be rescued from the lake in which he lands. In Lassing, Austria, a miner who was thought to be dead is rescued from the collapsed mine in which he has been trapped for 10 days. Georg Hainzl is lifted 60 metres to the surface of the talc mine and placed immediately in a decompression chamber. He is expected to make a full recovery. (See also July 19, 18.)

1998 July 27 In Agrigento, Sicily, a riot breaks out at a detention camp holding illegal immigrants from Africa and Asia. Violence erupts as the refugees attempt to escape the camp and are blocked by police. Ten police officers are injured before they fire warning shots toward the rioters, injuring two. In Yemen, three Catholic nuns are shot dead by Abdullah al-Nasheri, a suspected Islamic extremist. Residents of Hodeida, where the attack takes place, manage to capture the gunman. The nuns worked as nurses for a charity in Yemen. Two people are killed and 16 others are rescued when a 1940's flying-boat crashes off the coast of Southampton, United Kingdom. Hundreds of onlookers witness the crash, whose cause has yet to be explained.

1998 July 28 In Montelimar, France, seven people are killed and 38 more injured as two coaches and a bus collide on a motorway. Most of those killed were Dutch or German tourists, travelling south toward Spain. More than 150 fire officers take over two hours to cut survivors free from the wreckage. The "China Daily" newspaper reports that the death toll in the Yangtze River summer floods could rise to more than 2,500. Across the region, thousands of army personnel and civilians are desperately building barracades against the worst flooding in the region for 45 years. In Hammond, U.S.A., an explosion injures 17 people as it rips through a power plant and sets fire to a large area of the plant. Four of those injured suffer serious burns and it takes fire crews several hours to bring the blaze under control. The cause of the explosion is under investigation.

1998 July 29 In Madrid, Spain, the Spanish Supreme Court sentences former interior minister Jose Barrionuevo and his deputy to 10 years in prison for their role in the so-called "dirty war" against the Basque separatist group, ETA. They are found guilty of kidnapping and misappropriating public funds, after a trial that has attracted wide publicity. It is the first time in Spanish history that a minister or former minister has been sent to prison. In France, cyclists taking part in the Tour de France ride the 17th stage of the race from Albertville to Aix-les-Bains deliberately slowly to protest against allegations of drug-taking made against them by police and media. Since this year's race began, the Swiss Festina team have been expelled for drug use, and many more teams have been questioned. A number of teams, including that of the world champion Laurent Jalabert, have withdrawn from the race in protest.

1998 July 30 In Brittany, France, fifteen people are killed as two small planes collide in mid-air near the bay of Quiberon. All on board are killed. It is thought that only one passenger was aboard the smaller a Cessna plane, whilst the other twin-engined craft was carrying 12 passengers from Lyons to Lorient. An investigation into the cause of the crash begins. In London, the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Bingham, quashes the conviction of Derek Bentley, whose controversial execution for the murder of a police officer in 1953 has sparked widespread protest until the present day. Bentley was sentenced to death for allegedly encouraging his friend, Chris Craig, to fire the fatal bullet at P.C. Sidney Miles. In Ohio, U.S.A., thirteen machine-shop workers celebrate winning more than 161 million U.S. dollars, after tax, for selecting the winning numbers for the world's biggest ever lottery prize. They win the Powerball rollover jackpot against odds of 80 million to one.

1998 July 31 In Beijing, the Municipal Higher People's Court sentences Chen Xitong, former mayor of Beijing, to 16 years in prison for corruption. He becomes the most senior government official to be convicted in China since the Communist Party's rise to power in 1949. In the state of Kashmir, fighting between Pakistani and Indian troops continues. Bombing by Pakistan forces kills 21 people and damages a military hospital. Indian troops respond with heavy firing on Pakistan bunkers. So far, the conflict has caused more than 20,000 people to flee the area.

1998:August,12 the "Holy Saith Koodasha" is celebrated in the Old Seminary, Kottayam.


2002 Tamil Nadu Prohibition of Forcible Conversion of Religion Ordinance passed.

 Syrian Churches which are syriac liturgy in full or part are titled

1. Assyrian Church (Nestorian Church).
   Chaldean Syrian Church (Trichur) belongs to this Church. There are two factions in it. One centred at Tehran and the other centred at Bagded.

2. Syro- Chaldean rite (The Chaldean Catholic Church)

3. Syro- Malabar rite (Syrian Catholic Church)

4. Syro- Antiochean rite (Syrian Catholic Church)

5. Syro- Malankara Rite (Malankara Syrian Catholic Church)

6. Syro- Maronite Rite (Maronite Catholic Church)

7. Syrian Orthodox Church (The Antiochean Church)

8. Malankara Orthodox Church

9. Malabar Independent Syrian Church (Thozhiyoor)

10. Malankara Marthoma Syrian Church

    On the basis of faith Syrian Churches fall into different divisions. Nestorians come under the first group. Orthodox Churches belongs to 7,8 groups. Thozhiyoor church of 9th group is an independent church. Under the 10th group comes reformed Church.
    Other groups comprise the oriental rites of the Roman Catholic church. 2, 3 groups include the Chaldean rites and 4, 5, 6 group sinclude Antiochean or western syrian rites.
    On the basis of liturgy and its language the syrian churches may be divided into two groups. The first groups use eastern (Chaldean) rites., the other groups use western syriac. The first three groups accept the Chaldean liturgy as basis, the other groups accept antiochean Liturgy as basis. Each section later made certain modifications.
    

    Oriental Orthodox Churches and their heads :
    

    1. Coptic Orthodox Church.
       Pope Shenouda III Alexandrean Patriarch (Cairo, Egypt)

    2. Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
       Abuna Paulose, Ethiopian Patriarch (Adis Ababa, Ethiopia)

    3. Syrian Orthodox Church.
       Ignatios Sakha I, Patriarch of Antioch (Damascus, Syria)

    4. Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church.
       Baselios Mar Thoma Mathews II- Metropolitan of Malankara and Catholicose of all the east (Kottayam, India)

    5. Armenian Apostolic Church:
       a. Karaikkin I Sarkisean, Supreme Catholicose (Hmiadsin, Armnia)
       b. Aram I Cheshishian, Selishian Catholicose (Antileas, lebanon)
       c. Torkom II Manugean, Patriarch of Jerusalem (Jerusalem, Isreal)
       d. Karaikkin II Kasandian, Constantinople Patriarch (Eastanbul, Turkey)
       

    6. Eritria Orthodox Church.
       Abuna Philipose, Arch Bishop of Eritrea (Asmara)

    Patriarch of Ancient Patriarchates
    

    1. Rome.
       Pope John Paul II (Patriarch of West)

    2. Constantinople.
       Barthalomeo I, Ecumenical Patriarch (Greek)
       Karaikkin II Kasandean (Armenia)

    3. Alexandria.
       Pope Shounada III (Coptic)
       Pope Pathrose (Greek)

    4. Antioch.
       Ignatius Sakha I (Syrian)
       Ignatius IV Hassim (Greek)

    5. Jerusalem.
       Diadorus I (Greek)
       Torkkom II Manugean (Armenia)

       Bishops of The Malankara Orthodox Church

       1. Marthoma I/Thomas Arkadyakkon :01.06.1653 - 22.04.1670
       2. Marthoma II : 1670 - 13.04.1686
       3. Marthoma III : 1686/7 - 19.04.1688
       4. Marthoma IV : 1688/9 - 24.03.1728
       5. Marthoma V : 1728 - 08.05.1765
       6. Marthoma VI : 10.07.1761
       7. Valiya Mar Dionysios I : 10.07.1770 - 08.04.1808
       8. Kattumangattu Abraham Mar Coorilose I : 28.11.1771/2 - 09.07.1802/3 (a)
       9. Kattumangattu Geevarghese Mar Coorilose 1794-28.05.1809/10 (a)
       10. Marthoma VII 05.05.1796-04.07.1809
       11. Kaniyavally Joseph mar Ivanios 1802(?) - 1807(?) (a)
       12. Zachariah Mar Phelexenos I Cheeran 1807 - 1811 (a)
       13. Marthoma VIII 02.07.1809 - 22.01.1816
       14. Geevarghese Mar Phelexenose Kidangan 1811 - 06.02.1829 (a)
       15. Joseph Mar Dionysios II (Pulikottil I) 21.03.1815 -24.11.1816
       16. Marthoma IX 1815 - 1817/8
       17. Geevarghese Mar Dionysios III (Punnathra) 19.10.1817 - 16.05.1825
       18. Philipose Mar Dionysios IV (Chepad) 27.08.1825
       19. Geevarghese Mar Coorilose III (Kuthoor) 27.03.1829 (a)
       20. Mathews Mar Athanisios (Palakunnathu) 14.02.1842 - 16.07.1877 (b)
       21. Joseph Mar Coorilose IV(Alathoor) 01.02.1857 - 31-01-1888 (a)
       22. Joseph Mar Dionysios V (Pulikottil II) 30.04.1865 - 11.07.1909
       23. Thomas mar Athanasios (Palakunnathu) 31.05.1868 - 10.08.1893 (b)
       24. Geevarghese Mar Eulios (Konattu) 03.12.1876 - 21.03.1884
       25. Paulose Mar Athanasios (Kadavil) 03.12.1876 - 02.11.11907

        

       26. Geevarghese Mar Coorilose (Ambattu) 10.12.1876 - 09.03.1891
       27. Geevarghese Mar Gregorios of Parumala(Chathuruthil) 10.12.1876 - 02.11.1902
       28. Semoon Mar Dionysios (Karavattu) 17.05.1877 - 02.10.1886
       29. Paulose Mar Ivanios (Murimattathu)/ 17.05.1877 - .....
       30. Catholicose Mar Baselios Paulose I 15.09.1912 - 02.05.1913
       31. Alvaries Mar Euliose 29.07.1889 - 23.09.1923
       32. Rinivilathy Mar Themothios 29.05.1892 - 08.07.1929? (e)
       33. Geevarghese Mar Dionysios VI (Vattasseril) 31.05.1908 - 23.02.1934
       34. Paulose Mar Coorilose (Kochuparambil) 31.05.1908 - 14.12.1917
       35. Paulose Mar Athanasios (Kuttikattil) 09.06.1910 - 25.01.1953 (c)
       36. Geevarghese Mar Severios (Edavazhikal) 28.08.1910 - 11.06.1927 (c)
       37. Geevarghese Mar Gregorios (Kallasseril)/ 08.09.1912 - .....
       38. Catholicose Mar Beselios Geevarghese II 15.02.1929 - 03.01.1964
       39. Uyakkim Mar Ivanios 09.02.1913 - 06.06.1925
       40. Geevarghese Mar Phelixenos/ 09.02.1913 - .....
       41. Catholicose Mar Baselios Geevarghese I 30.04.1925 - 17.12.1928
       42. Geevarghese Mar Ivanios 01.05.1925 - 15.07.1953 (d)
       43. Micheal Mar Dionysios 24.10.1926 - 18.01.1956 (c)
       44. Thomas Mar Dioscorus 24.10.1926 - 21.02.1943 (c&d)
       45. Ougen Mar Themothios/ 15.05.1927 - ..... (c)
       46. Catholicose Baselios Augen I 22.05.1964 - 08.12.1975
       47. Kuriyakose Mar Gregorios 16.02.1929 - 05.04.1965
       48. Yacob Mar Theophilose 16.02.1929 - 27.06.1956 (d)
       49. Geevarghese Mar Phelexenose 03.11.1930 - 17.04.1951
       50. Joseph Mar Severios 25.05.1933 - 18.01.1955 (d)
       51. Alexios Mar Thevodosios 07.04.1938 - 06.08.1965
       52. Thoma Mar Dionysios 06.05.1940 - 03.12.1972
       53. Geevarghese Mar Gregorios 04.08.1946 - 06.11.1966 (c)
       54. Paulose Mar Severios 04.08.1946 - 06.1.1966 (c)
       55. Abraham Mar Climies 15.04.1951 - ..... (c)
       56. Paulose Mar Phelexenos (Sresta Bava) 19.10.1952 - 01.09.1996 (c)
       57. Pathrose Mar Osthathios 15.05.1953 - 02.02.1968
       58. Mathews Mar Ivanios 15.05.1953 - 31.08.1980
       59. Mathews Mar Athanasios/ 15.05.1953 - .....
       60. Catholicose Baselios Marthoma Mathews I 27.10.1975 - 08.11.1996
       61. Daniel Mar Phelixenose 15.05.1953 - 13.12.1990
       62. Mathews Mar Coorilose/ 15.05.1953 - .....
       63. Catholicose Baseliose Marthoma Mathews II 29.04.1999
       64. Philipose Mar Theophilose 24.08.1966 - 28.09.1997
       65. Yuhanon Mar Severios 24.08.1966 - 16.05.1990
       66. Thomas Mar Themothios 24.08.1966 -
       67. Dr.Geevarghese Mar Osthathios 16.02.1975
       68. Dr.Paulose mar Gregorios 16.02.1975 - 24.11.1996
       69. Dr.Stephanose Mar Theodosios 16.02.1975
       70. Dr.Thomas Mar Makarios 16.02.1975
       71. Joseph Mar Pachomios 16.02.1975 - 19.08.1991
       72. Yacob Mar Policorpus 15.05.1978 - 26.12.1986
       73. Zachariah Mar Dionysios 15.05.1978 - 07.07.1997
       74. Mathews Mar Bernabas 15.05.1978
       75. Geevarghese Mar Dioscorus 15.05.1978 - 23.07.1999
       76. Yohanon Mar Athanasios 15.05.1978 - 12.10.1980
       77. Dr.Abraham Mar Severios 06.03.1982 (f)
       78. Mathews Mar Eppiphanios 15.05.1985
       79. Philipose Mar Eusobios 15.05.1985
       80. Thomas Mar Athanisios 15.05.1985
       81. Geevarghese Mar Ivanios 15.05.1985
       82. Paolose Mar Milithios 15.05.1985
       83. Dr.Thomas Mar Athanasios 03.05.1990 (f)
       84. Dr.Yuhanon Mar Milithios 23.12.1990 (f)
       85. Kuriyakose Mar Climmies 30.04.1991
       86. Job Mar Phelexenos 30.04.1991
       87. Zachariah Mar Anthonios 30.04.1991
       88. Dr.Mathews Mar Severios 30.04.1991
       89. Geevarghese Mar Coorilose 30.04.1991
       90. Paulose Mar Pachomios 16.08.1993
       91. Dr.Yacob Mar Irenios 16.08.1993
       92. Zechariah Mar Nicholovos

        

       Notes

        

       (a)Malabar Syrian church(Thozhiyoor/Anjoor)

       (b)Marthoma Church

       (c)Ordained by Patriarchies wing(1910-1958)

       (d)Joined Roman Church

       (e)Quit Malankara Church

       (f)Joined from Patriarchies after Supreme Court Decree

       "Holy Mooron Koodasha" conducted in The Malankara Orthodox Church

       1. Mar Ignatios Peeter II Marthommen Church,Mulanthuruthy 27.08.1876
       2. Mar Ignatios Abudulla II Marthommen Church,Mulanthuruthy 19.08.1911
       3. Mar Baselios Geevarghese II Old Seminary,Kottayam 22.04.1932
       4. Mar Baselios Geevarghese II Old Seminary,Kottayam 20.04.1951
       5. Mar Baselios Augen I Old Seminary,Kottayam 21.12.1967
       6. Mar Baselios Marthoma Mathews I Old Seminary,Kottayam 01.04.1977
       7. Mar Baselios Marthoma Mathews I Devalokam Aramana,Kottayam 25.03.1988
       8. Mar Baselios Marthoma Mathews II Devalokam Aramana,Kottayam 23.06.1999

        

       Malankara Association

       It was Mulanthuruthy Synod (1876) that augured the formation of the Malankara Association. Earlier there had been meetings of church representatives, which took bold decision for the Church. Such were:-

       1.      Diamper Synod (20-26-June 1599)

       2.      Kandanad Assembly (13 August 1809),

       3.      Mavelikara Assembly (16 January 1836),

       4.      Kallunkathra Assembly (15 September 1843),

       5.      Kottayam Old Seminary Assembly on (14 February 1853 on 21 October 1869 and on 7 February 1870 and

       6.      Parumala Seminary Assembly (September 1873).

       The following are official meetings of the representatives of the Church: -

       Mulanthuruthy Synod ------------------1876 June 27 - 30

        

       Veliyanadu Synod -----------------------1877 Jan 27 - 30

        

       Parumala Seminary ---------------------1878 Feb 18

        

       Old Seminary,Kottayam ---------------1886 Sept 11 - 13

        

       Old Seminary,Kottayam ---------------1892 March 30 - 31

        

       Old Seminary,Kottayam ---------------1895 Nov 21 - 23

        

       Old Seminary,Kottayam ---------------1901 April 24 - 25

        

       Old Seminary,Kottayam ---------------1908 Feb 27

        

       Old Seminary,Kottayam ---------------1909 Nov 25 - 27

        

       Aluva Patriarcate Wing ----------------1911 Aug 30 - Sept 1

        

       M.D Seminary,Kottayam --------------1911 Sept 7

        

       Aluva Patriarcate Wing ----------------1918 Jan 31

        

       Old Seminary,Kottayam ---------------1930 Sept 4

        

       M.D Seminary,Kottayam --------------1931 July 10

        

       M.D Seminary,Kottayam --------------1934 Dece 26

        

       Karingachira(Patriarcate wing) -------1935 August 22

        

       M.D Seminary,Kottayam --------------1951 May 17

        

       Manarcadu(Patriarcate wing) ---------1957 June 21

        

       St.Mary's Church,Puthencavu --------1958 Dece 26

        

       M.D Seminary,Kottayam --------------1959 Sept 16

        

       Niranam St.Mary's ----------------------1962 May 17

        

       M.D Seminary,Kottayam --------------1965 Dece 28

        

       M.D Seminary,Kottayam --------------1970 Dece 31

        

       Niranam St.Mary's ----------------------1974 Oct 2

        

       Mavelikara M.S.S School--------------1977 may 16

        

       M.D Seminary,Kottayam---------------1980 May 1

        

       M.G.M School,Thiruvalla -------------1982 Dece 28

        

       M.D Seminary,Kottayam --------------1985 Oct 23

        

       M.D Seminary,Kottayam --------------1987 Dece 29

        

       Catholicate College,Pathanamthitta--1989 Dece 28

        

       Parumala Seminary ----------------------1992 Sept 10

        

       Parumala Seminary ----------------------1994 May 26

        

        

        

       Syrian Bishops in Malankara

        

        

       Name Landed in Malankara Date of Death

        

        

       Mar Gregorios Abded Jaleel 1665 24.04 1671

        

       Mar Anthrayose(?) 1678 29.02.1692

        

       Mar Baselios Eldo Mafriyana 1685 29.09.1685

        

       Mar Ivanios Hidayathulla 1685 13.08.1693

        

       Mar Gabriel(?) 1708 19.02.1731

        

       Mar Baselios Shakralla Mafriyana 1751 20.10.1764

        

       Yoohanon Mar Gregorios 1751 08.07.1773

        

       Yoohanon Mar Ivanios 1751 18.04.1794

        

       Yuyakkim Mar Coorilose 1846 01.09.1874

        

       Semoon Mar Athanasios 1881 11.06.1889

        

       Sleeba Mar Osthathios 1908 19.03.1930

        

       Alias Mar Eulios 1923 19.02.1962

        

       Mar Ignatios Alias III Patriarch 1931 13.02.1932